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MANUAL 

OF    THE 

WINONA    NORMAL 
ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 


COURSE  OF 

STUDY 


WINONA    ••    MINNESOTA 


MANUAL 


OF  THE 


WINONA     NORMAL 

ELEMENTARY 
SCHOOL 


COURSE  OF  STUDY 


WINONA,  MINNESOTA 


1909 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

Part  I 

Preface 

Introduction  —  What  the  School  Stands  For. 

Kindergarten 

Arithmetic 

Geography 

History 

Nature  Study 

Physical  Education 

Review  Class 

Part  II 

Language  and  Grammar 

Literature  and  Reading 

Drawing 

Manual  Training 

Domestic  Art 

Music 

Penmanship 

Spelling 


PREFACE 

This  is  a  revision  of  the  manuals  published  in  1903  and  1907. 
Others  will  follow  from  time  to  time  as  new  matters  and  changes  worthy 
of  note  shall  arise.  We  therefore  request  the  hearty  co-operation  of 
school  teachers  and  superintendents  in  making  the  series  of  practical 
value  for  the  purposes  intended.  We  invite  suggestions,  criticisms  and 
other  aid  that  will  help  the  school  to  be  of  greater  assistance  to  the 
teachers  of  the  state. 

The  manual  has  been  prepared  for  two  purposes.  Our  student 
teachers  require  a  hand-book  to  aid  them  in  becoming  intelligently 
acquainted  with  a  graded  school  course  of  study.  In  the  second  place 
our  graduates  and  other  teachers  and  superintendents  thruout  the 
state  may  be  interested  to  know  what  position  the  Winona  normal 
school  takes  in  regard  to  points,  dabatable  or  otherwise,  in  the  course 
of  study. 

In  assisting  to  modernize  the  course  of  study  for  elementary  schools 
we  realize  that  a  normal  school  must  not  go  too  far  from  the  commonly 
accepted  course  of  study  lest  student  teachers  be  handicapped  by  being 
thrown  into  situations  too  strange,  when,  after  graduation,  they  begin 
their  independent  teaching.  Consequently  this  course  of  study  is  not 
so  much  an  expression  of  what  we  might  like  to  do  as  it  is  a  statement 
of  what  seems  practicable  in  the  schools  of  Minnesota.  That  is  to  say, 
we  try  to  have  in  our  elementary  school  for  the  observation  of  our 
student  teachers,  not  a  course  that  is  theoretically  ideal  (if  there  could 
be  such),  but  one  that  is  usable  in  any  graded  school  in  the  state. 

Variations  in  literary  style  which  may  be  remarked  by  one  who 
reads  this  manual  as  a  unit,  as  well  as  implicit  differences  of  opinion 
upon  psychological  and  pedagogical  questions,  point  to  the  fact 
that  this  course  of  study  is  the  joint  product  (after  prolonged  discus- 
sions) of  members  of  the  faculty  most  concerned  with  the  various 
subjects. 


WHAT  THE  SCHOOL  STANDS  FOR 


WHAT  THE  SCHOOL  STANDS  FOR 

There  are  few  data  of  scientific  accuracy  back  to  which  we  may 
go  for  principles  of  direction  in  the  construction  of  a  course  of  study. 
On  the  one  hand,  there  is  no  standard  by  which  to  judge  as  to  what 
knowledge  is  of  most  worth.  Some  affirm  that  all  branches  of 
knowledge  have  equal  value  (for  discipline,  at  least),  others  that 
each  subject  has  quite  distinct  values,  and  still  others  that  their 
values  depend  upon  the  point  of  view  and  methods  of  presentation. 
We  know,  (in  the  accurate  use  of  the  term),  neither  what 
subjects  to  put  into  a  course  of  study,  at  what  point  to  put  them  in, 
nor  how  to  apportion  the  time  to  be  given  to  each.  Nevertheless, 
in  the  presence  of  such  empirical  conditions  we  are  confronted  by  a 
practical  situation  which  demands  that  the  children  of  the  nation 
be  taught  something,  be  prepared,  whether  well  or  poorly,  for  active, 
practical  life.  We,  therefore,  are  compelled  to  construct  some  sort 
of  curriculum. 

In  the  absence  of  scientifically  accurate  basal  facts,  we  are 
compelled  to  rely  pretty  largely  upon  the  general  principles 
which  He  behind  our  efforts,  much  as  the  traveler  who  does  not 
know  what  he  will  do  each  day,  falls  back  upon  the  plan  of  keeping 
in  view  his  final  goal  and  doing  his  best  to  make  each  day's  condi- 
tions assist  in  the  accomplishment  of  his  journey.  So  in  educa- 
tion —  aims,  values,  and  purposes  occupy  a  very  prominent  place 
while  the  subjects  and  division  of  subjects  in  a  course  of  study 
occupy  one  comparatively  less  important,  since  in  the  absence  of 
scientific  backing  they  may  be  blown  about  by  every  wind  of  doc- 
trine. 

And,  indeed,  the  meanings,  values,  and  purposes  of  education 
are  themselves  somewhat  uncertain.  They  change  from  generation 
to  generation  and  vary  with  the  locality  of  the  school  and  the  per- 
sonality of  individuals.  Yet  in  each  generation  and  in  each  locality 
a  group  of  tendencies  and  purposes  form  themselves  and  become 
a  direct  influence  in  the  school,  both  upon  the  objective  goal  and  in 
the  formation  of  a  course  of  study.  These  tendencies  are  hard  to 
describe  in  full  and  one  can  hope  to  do  little  more  than  pick  out 
some  of  those  that  are  emphasized  most  strongly. 

The  aim  of  our  elcmcutary  school  is  to  assist  children  to  appre- 
ciate the  values  of  life  and  to  get  control  of  them.  (Tlie  training  of 
student  teachers  is  incidental  in  this  connection.) 


30:J80.'5 


WHAT  THE  SCHOOL  STANDS  FOR 


By  values  of  life  we  mean  those  things  which  today  are  con- 
sidered worth  while,  which  people  are  proud  to  possess  or  to  be 
connected  with.  To  catalog  them  all  would  be  impossible.  To 
catalog  the  most  important  would  also  be  impossible.  All  we  can 
do  is  to  state  those  which  we  believe  to  be  the  most  important  for 
us  and  for  the  state  of  Minnesota. 

One  of  the  chief  values  of  life  is  a  strong,  vigorous,  healthy 
physique.  To  further  this,  we  have  this  year  a  well  equipped  gym- 
nasium in  which  every  pupil  of  the  elementary  school  receives  in- 
struction and  is  allowed  some  free  play  under  competent  super- 
vision. Physical  examinations  are  conducted  by  an  appointed 
school  physician,  assisted  by  the  directress  of  physical  education. 

Another  chief  value  of  life  is  information.  Being  the  method 
by  virtue  of  which  all  control  or  growth  of  appreciation  is  possible, 
it  is  everywhere  present  in  life  and  education.  Because  of  this,  it 
has  received  almost  exclusive  attention  in  education  in  generations 
past.  In  the  process  of  time  it  grew  to  be  no  longer  a  means  but 
an  end  of  education.  In  recent  years  it  has  been  a  sign  of  so-called 
progressiveness  to  snatch  from  its  head  its  ancient  crown, 
but  it  is  too  useful,  too  all-pervasive  to  disappear,  tho  it  continues 
no  longer  as  monarch,  but  stands  firm  upon  its  virtue  as  an  in- 
dispensable member  of  the  family  of  experience. 

Another  chief  value  is  a  fine,  warm,  enthusiastic  social  con- 
sciousness, one  that  takes  into  account  the  value  of  friendship,  of 
service,  of  reliance  and  dependence,  one  that  alternately  and  simul- 
taneously gives  to  and  receives  from  society.  The  attention  paid 
to  this  value  is  rapidly  rising  and  greater  and  greater  stress  is  likely 
to  be  laid  upon  it,  at  least  temporarily,  in  the  near  future.  We 
are  not  among  the  radicals  in  following  this  tendency,  but  we  recog- 
nize its  worth.  We  do  not  have  our  children  work  in  groups  to  any 
great  extent,  altho  we  have  such  in  manual  training,  when,  for  in- 
stance, several  boys  work  together  on  an  ice  boat,  or  when  the 
boys  build  the  doll  house  and  the  girls  furnish  it,  or  when  the 
more  clever  of  the  children  are  allowed  to  assist  the  others  to  a 
limited  degree.  We  also  make  the  social  motive  the  main  basis  for 
our  school  discipline  and  utilize  it  in  our  reading  and  language. 
The  children  are  taught  in  discipline  to  recognize  the  doctrine  of 
non-interference  with  others  and  of  helpfulness  to  others,  including 
their  classmates,  the  janitors  and  the  teachers.     In  reading  and 


WHAT  THE  SCHOOL  STANDS  FOR 


language  we  make  it  a  central  principle  of  method  of  instruction 
that  both  of  these  subjects  are  tools  by  which  to  express  our  ideals 
to  other  people.  This  value  is  again  seen  as  one  of  the  controlling 
principles  in  history.  By  this  we  mean  that  an  important  aim  of 
history  instruction  is  to  make  past  situations  so  real  that  in  imag- 
ination the  children  may  in  some  degree  actually  live  the  lives  and 
feel  the  problems  of  the  people  concerned. 

Another  chief  value  is  a  rich,  sensitive,  aesthetic  nature.  In 
this  two  factors  operate  —  an  aesthetic  environment,  and  instructors 
in  sympathy  with  the  best  art.  This,  we  believe,  is  one  of  the 
strongly  marked  characteristics  of  our  school.  In  music  we  have 
the  best  chorals  and  songs  sung  in  chapel  and  in  the  regular  singing 
period;  we  also  have  the  metrostyle  by  which  the  pupils  become  ac- 
quainted with  the  works  of  the  masters  of  music.  In  art  we  have 
been  able  to  secure  by  purchase  and  gift  reproductions  of  the  works 
of  the  master  painters  and  sculptors.  In  literature  a  wide  selection 
is  made  from  the  many  texts  mentioned  under  that  subject  in  this 
manual,  so  that  the  children  will  be  able  to  spend  their  time  upon 
only  the  best. 

Other  chief  values  of  life  are  rehgion  and  morality,  one  of  which 
we  try  to  teach  thru  its  particular  manifestation,  reverence,  and  the 
other  of  which  we  try  to  inculcate  in  the  everyday  procedure  of  life, 
by  laying  stress  upon  such  virtues  as  cleanliness,  self-control,  obe- 
dience, and  honesty,  supplemented  by  certain  more  or  less  formal 
work  in  ethics. 

By  appreciation  we  mean  both  intellectual  appreciation,  with 
an  eye  to  values,  abihty  to  get  the  perspective  of  things,  and  what 
we  may,  for  want  of  a  better  term,  call  emotional  appreciation. 
Intellectual  appreciation  of  values  is  calculating,  deliberate,  cold; 
emotional  appreciation  is  warm,  joyous;  intellectual  appreciation 
steadies  the  emotional,  and  the  emotional  in  return  gives  life  and 
joy  to  the  intellectual.  The  ways  in  which  we  try  to 
get  this  in  the  school  are  intangible  and  difficult  to  state  in  words. 
For  the  most  part  it  comes  thru  stress  laid  upon  personaHty  rather 
than  upon  subject-matter,  upon  the  man  rather  than  upon 
knowledge,  upon  the  content  of  experience  rather  than  upon  forms, 
upon  entering  into  experience,  upon  dramatization  and  upon  mak- 
ing situations  real  by  illustrations  and  devices. 

By  control  of  these  values  we  mean  that  we  lay  emphasis  upon 


WHAT  THE  SCHOOL  STANDS  FOR 


the  ability  of  a  child  to  secure,  to  obtain,  to  lay  hold  on  them. 
It  stands  for  efficiency.  If  the  child  has  the  capacity  for  aesthetic 
enjoyment  he  ought  to  be  able  to  get  this  aesthetic  enjoyment;  if  he 
wishes  to  be  of  social  service  he  ought  to  know  how  to  be  able  to 
be  of  social  service;  if  he  has  a  desire  for  a  religious  life  he  ought 
to  have  the  skill  to  live  a  religious  life.  When  he  has  a  scheme  of 
values  he  should  be  able  to  fulfil  his  heart's  desire  in  connection 
with  any  of  them. 

It  lays  emphasis  upon  the  discipline  of  the  powers,  upon  effi- 
cient endeavor,  upon  fluency  of  expression,  upon  power  to  organize, 
upon  accuracy  and  readiness,  and  upon  good  judgment  and  common 
sense.  Mere  knowledge,  mere  enjoyment,  mere  aesthetic  appre- 
ciation must  be  supplemented  by  the  ability  to  use  them. 

These  tendencies  may  be  illustrated  in  their  practical  working 
in  the  subject-matter  of  the  course  of  study.  They  produce  certain 
characteristics  which  have  several  manifestations  in  the  school. 

In  the  first  place,  there  is  a  tendency  to  modernize  the  course 
of  study  because  of  the  fact  that  we  have  an  intellectual  appreciation 
of  the  values  of  life.  Values  change  and  many  things  which  were 
once  of  value  are  no  longer  so.  Yet  in  spite  of  this  they  remain, 
and  hence  need  to  be  lopped  off.  This  modernization  shows  itself 
in  arithmetic  where  we  have  eliminated  from  our  course  of  study 
phases  of  work  no  longer  socially  serviceable.  It  is  seen  again  in 
history  when  we  lay  less  stress  than  formerly  upon  wars,  and  more 
upon  government  growth,  less  upon  fiction,  and  more  upon  fact. 
In  geography  we  are  not  discarding  so  much  as  adding  to  the  sub- 
ject-matter by  bringing  in  descriptions  of  processes  of  growth  and 
manufacture  and  a  knowledge  of  relations  between  products  and 
phenomena  and  physical  condition. 

A  second  manifestation  of  these  tendencies  is  the  endeavor  to 
introduce  subject-matter  thru  its  function.  Control  is  an  aim  of 
life  and  subject-matter  is  the  means  stored  up  for  securing  control, 
for  solving  problems,  etc.,  and  is  best  introduced  when  the  need  for 
it  has  arisen,  when  the  problem  it  will  help  has  come  to  the  surface, 
or  when  the  desire  it  fulfils  is  felt.     This  shows  itself  in  various  ways. 

In  drawing  the  children  paint  first  and  then  as  it  is  required 
technique  is  introduced.  In  reading  the  children  read  first  and 
then  as  the  need  of  symbol  study  is  felt'  it  is  given.  In  arith- 
metic   many  processes,    measures,    denominate    quantities,   rules, 


WHAT  THE  SCHOOL  STANDS  FOR 


and  de\4ces  are  so  introduced.  Similarly,  attention  is  paid  to 
words  in  composition  work  because  failure  to  spell  correctly 
causes  misundertanding.  And  again  in  history  one  topic  provides 
a  clue  for  the  introduction  of  a  later  one. 

This  branches  easily  into  a  method  which,  called  by  various 
names,  is  based  upon  the  fact  that  subject-matter  not  only  may  be 
used  as  a  tool  of  experience,  but  has  been  constructed  by  experience 
as  it  worked  freely  and  naturally  in  its  everyday  activities.  It, 
therefore,  follows  that  much  of  the  technique  of  experience  in  the 
school  room  may  be  constructed  by  experience  without  much  con- 
scious effort.  Experience  has  learned  the  habit.  For  instance, 
in  reading  the  children's  desire  to  read  what  they  know  to  other 
people  makes  them  reasonably  expressive  readers  without  paying 
much  attention  to  the  technique.  So  in  writing,  the  desire  to  write 
so  that  their  friends  may  understand  them,  makes  them  fairly  good 
writers  without  much  attention  to  the  matter  in  formal  writing 
lessons.  This  is  what  may  be  defined  as  one  phase  of  the  thought 
method,  of  the  experience  method,  of  the  natural  method,  or  of  the 
purposive  method. 

A  third  manifestation  closely  related  to  the  fact  that  the  func- 
tion of  subject-matter  is  to  assist  experience,  is  that  of  the  attempt 
to  parallel  the  subject-matter  and  the  experience  of  the  child. 
Since  subject-matter  is  an  aid,  it  cannot  be  presented  in  a  form  more 
complex  and  subtle  than  the  experience  of  the  child.  When  a  child 
is  at  an  age  when  he  thinks  in  paragraphs,  it  is  a  serious  mistake 
to  have  him  try  to  distinguish  fine  shades  in  the  meanings  of  words, 
and  when  he  is  unable  to  analyze,  it  is  a  mistake  to  expect  explana- 
tions of  problems  in  arithmetic.  On  the  other  hand,  when  he  is 
able  to  do  difficult  work  he  should  not  be  hampered  with  easy  work. 
A  strict  parallel  should  be  preserved. 

To  secure  this  parallel  we  have  for  the  most  part  in  practical 
procedure  to  make  the  subject-matter  in  the  grades  simpler,  to 
move  the  subject-matter  up  the  grades  and  hold  the  children  to 
greater  skill  in  handling  it.  For  instance,  in  arithmetic  we  do  not 
require  formal  analysis  below  the  sixth  grade,  because  it  tends  to 
result  in  the  mere  mechanical  memorizing  of  the  form  given.  In 
manual  training  we  have  work  such  as  pottery  in  the  lower  grades 
which  does  not  require  fineness  of  co-ordination,  and  little  is  done  in 
any  grade  in  hard  wood  which  requires  great  fineness.     In  language 


10  WHAT  THE  SCHOOL  STANDS  FOR 

we  have  little  technique,  except  incidentally,  below  the  sixth  grade. 
In  the  sixth  grade  we  take  the  paragraph  because  the  children  are 
just  then  beginning  to  be  able  to  pick  out  big  thoughts;  in  the  sev- 
enth grade  sentences,  and  in  the  eighth  grade  the  finer  distinctions 
between  words  as  shown  chiefly  in  the  more  complex  forms  of  gram- 
mar. 

In  addition  to  this,  we  utilize  the  newer  sort  of  subject-matter 
sometimes  appearing  under  the  name  of  history,  sometimes  under 
that  of  manual  training,  and  again  as  geography,  known  generalh' 
and  roughly  as  studies  in  primitive  life.  This  subject-matter  is  used 
by  us  almost  entirely  from  the  standpoint  of  providing  simple 
situations  in  which  the  fundamental  problems  of  modern  life,  such 
as  food,  shelter,  family,  etc.,  are  solved  in  simple  ways  rather  than 
from  that  of  attempting  to  have  the  children  live  the  lives  of  these 
people  and  be  savages  with  them.  We  find  these  problems  and 
solutions  in  simplified  form  in  the  stories  of  the  Tree  Dwellers  and 
Cave  Men,  of  Ab,  of  Robinson  Crusoe,  in  pioneer  life,  in  The  Seven 
Little  Sisters,  and  in  such  manual  training  work  as  the  evolution 
of  milling  and  of  the  plow,  all  of  which  are  made  the  basis  of  con- 
struction and  sand-table  work. 

We,  then,  stand  for  the  following: 

1.  A  simplified  course  of  study  with  rigid  standards  of  excellence. 

2.  No  subject-matter  without  some  need  for  it. 

3.  The  ability  to  get  control  of  what  is  worth  while. 

4.  The  things  worth  while  are  social,  intellectual,  physical,  aesthetic 
and  moral  enjoyment  and  efficiency. 

5.  No  more  attention  to  technique  than  is  necessary  for  efficient 
control. 


PART 


KINDERGARTEN 

INTRODUCTION 

To  help  little  children  to  adjust  themselves  to  the  life  about 
them  and  to  prepare  them  for  the  more  fomial  school  life,  the  kin- 
dergarten stands  as  the  natural  link  between  the  home  and  the 
school.  It  partakes  of  the  nature  of  both,  for  it  preserves  and  util- 
izes the  spirit,  the  relations,  and  the  experiences  of  home  life,  and 
brings  to  the  children  added  power  to  organize  time,  and  to  sys- 
temize  play  and  work.  This  develops  in  the  children  habits  of 
thought  and  action,  which  prepare  them  for  the  work  of  the  school. 

The  kindergarten  is  a  little  social  community  in  which  chil- 
dren of  similar  ages  under  guardianship  meet  on  an  equal  footing, 
share  with  one  another  various  experiences,  play  and  labor  indi- 
vidually for  personal  advantage,  or  co-operatively  for  the  good  of 
the  group,  thereby  developing  those  traits  of  character  which  lay 
the  basis  for  right  citizenship  and  true  selfhood. 

The  whole  child  is  taken  into  account  in  the  kindergarten, 
hence  ample  opportunity  for  exercise  and  out-door  life  is  provided 
thru  games,  rhythmic  plays,  walks,  and  excursions.  To  promote 
mental  development,  stories,  songs  and  morning  talks  are  utilized 
—  for  the  pleasure  which  they  give,  for  stimulation  to  the  imagina- 
tion, for  imparting  information,  and  for  implanting  ideals;  for  giv- 
ing correct  ideas  of  existing  relations,  and  incidentally  for  their 
value  as  language  lessons.  The  so-called  gifts  and  occupations  of 
the  kindergarten  are  included  in  this  category  and  are  employed 
chiefly  to  develop  in  the  children  the  power  to  do  things,  rather  than 
as  a  means  of  imparting  knowledge.  Special  attention  is  given  to 
the  development  of  those  habits  of  conduct  which  are  necessary 
to  the  happiness  and  well-being  of  the  individual  and  of  the  group. 
The  children  are  led  to  be  helpful,  to  observe  the  rights  of  others, 
and  to  be  courteous  and  kind.  The  retributive  method  of  discipline 
is  employed;  thus  the  children  are  led  to  distinguish  between  the 
right  and  the  wrong  by  reaping  the  natural  consequences  of  right 
or  wrong  acts. 


12  KINDERGARTEN 


The  complete  course  covers  a  period  of  two  years,  the  children 
being  admitted  at  four  years  of  age.  The  children  meet  in  one 
group  for  the  morning  and  closing  circles  and  for  the  games  and 
rhythmic  plays;  for  the  stories,  morning-talks,  and  table  work  (gift 
and  occupation  work)  they  are  graded  into  three  divisions  accord- 
ing to  their  ages  and  experience,  and  the  work  is  adapted  to  their 
various  stages  of  development. 

The  enlarged  Froebelian  gifts  are  used  thruout  the  course,  and 
the  directed  work  which  is  given  is  intended  to  suggest  to  the  chil- 
dren the  possibilities  of  the  material,  and  thus  to  stimulate  the 
children  to  do  original  work.  Opportunity  for  free  play  —  viz: 
original  work  —  with  the  gifts  is  a  conspicuous  part  of  our  daily 
program. 

In  our  occupation  work  we  lean  toward  the  freer  and  more 
expressive  forms  of  work  —  free  and  illustrative  drawing,  free 
cutting,  clay  modeling,  etc.  The  directed  work  with  the  occupa- 
tions, as  with  the  gifts,  is  to  develop  in  the  children  the  power  to 
handle  materials  in  such  a  way  as  will  lead  to  independent  and  pro- 
ductive results. 

In  selecting  stories  to  be  used  in  the  kindergarten,  we  aim  to 
present  those  that  make  a  distinct  appeal  to  children  and,  at  the 
same  time,  have  some  literary  value.  Very  little  formal  marching 
is  given.  In  its  place  we  have  rhythmical  plays  of  various  kinds, 
such  as  forms  of  walking,  running,  skipping,  imitative  movements, 
and  simple  ring  games. 

THE  PROGRAM 

In  preparing  a  program  for  the  kindergarten,  the  teacher  must 
not  only  consider  the  nature  and  needs  of  the  individuals  to  be 
trained,  the  experiences  which  they  have  had  prior  to  their  kinder- 
garten days,  the  environment  in  which  they  live,  and  the  influences 
which  have  surrounded  them,  but  must  also  be  able  to  weigh  these 
various  factors  and  determine  what  is  of  worth  in  this  total  of  ex- 
perience. To  do  this,  she  must  study  her  group  of  children  and 
their  activities  in  relation  to  the  development  of  collective  hu- 
manity, for  from  the  study  of  the  development  of  mankind  she  gets 
her  standard  of  values.  The  immediate  experiences  of  the  children 
are  her  points  of  departure  for  the  work  of  the  year.     From  these 


KINDERGARTEN  13 


she  is  to  lead  her  children  into  broader  and  richer  experience  by 
interpreting  for  them  some  of  the  familiar  phenomena  of  life  about 
them,  and  by  introducing  them  to  more  distant  phases  of  life  which 
more  or  less  directly  affect  their  own  little  lives.  It  stands  to  rea- 
son that  a  fixed  program  will  not  be  fitted  to  the  needs  of  all  classes 
of  children.  The  following  program  was  prepared  for  a  class  of 
children  having  more  or  less  varied  experiences  and  Uving  in  our 
city,  which  combines  in  an  unusual  degree  the  advantages  of  city 
life  and  the  environment  of  country  life.  The  children  know  at 
first  hand  a  river,  a  lake,  bluffs,  meadows,  etc.,  and  the  squirrel, 
which  plays  an  important  part  in  the  program,  is  a  familiar  figure 
in  the  streets  of  Winona. 

FALL  TERM 

1.  The  Home  Experiences  of  the  Children  —  The  members  of  the 

family;  the  children's  pets,  playthings  and  plays;  the  father's 
and  the  mother's  work;  the  kindergarten  home  and  the  kind- 
ergarten doll. 

Analogy  in  Nature  —  Families  in  the  world  of  nature — squirrels, 
birds,  etc. —  ihcir  work  and  plays. 

2.  Preparation  for  Winter  —  Mother's  work  in  the  home;  father's 
contribution;  the  care  of  the  yard;  storing  of  fruits,  vegetables, 
and  fuel. 

Analogy  in  Nature  —  The  squirrel's  preparation;  storing  food 

for  winter;  preparing  of  the  home. 

Preparation  in  the  World  of  Nature  —  The  flowers,  seeds  —  only 

two  or  three  familiar  varieties;  the  caterpillar;  the  birds;  the 

trees;  changes  in  weather  conditions. 

A  Helper  —  The  farmer  and  his  harvest ;  our  dependence  upon 

him;  vi.sit  shop  to  see  fall  vegetables;  gathering  of  vegetables 

from  the  kindergarten  garden. 

3.  Thanksgiving,   a   culmination   of   the   fall   thought  —  General 

causes  for  thankfulness,  of  the  children,  of  nature's  family; 

specific  things  for  which  we  are  thankful  —  food,  bread  and 

butter;  Thanksgiving  day. 

Note  —  In  taking  up  the  subject  of  bread,  the  finished  product 
is  traced  to  its  source;  later  the  children  grind  the  wheat  seeds  into 
flour  w^hich  they  sift  and  then  send  to  the  Domestic  Science  Depart- 


14  KINDERGARTEN 


ment  where  it  is  made  into  bread  and  returned  to  the  kindergarten. 

Butter  is  made  by  the  children  in  the  kindergarten,  an  ordinary 

cream  whip  being  used  as  a  churn. 

Excursions  —  Excursions  each  week  to  view  changes  being  wrought 
by  nature  and  to  observe  squirrels,  birds,  etc. ;  work  in  kinder- 
garten garden. 

Stories  —  Thumbhng,  (*15) ;  The  Three  Bears,  (4) ;  The  Frog  Prince, 
(1);  Dora  and  the  Light  House,  (15);  The  Squirrel  Fainily, 
(adapted,  6) ;  The  Crane's  Express,  (6) ;  The  Little  Green  Cater- 
pillar, (adapted,  13);  Which  Was  Happier,  (Primary  Educa- 
tion) ;  The  Big  Red  Apple,  (3) ;  Tommy  Tucker's  Bun,  (14) ; 
The  Little  Red  Hen,  (4). 

Songs  —  Greeting,  (29) ;  Hymn,  (28) ;  The  Wandering  Doll,  (29) ; 
The  Dolly  I  Love  Best,  (23);  The  Flowers'  Lullabye,  (30); 
Mr.  Squirrel,  (26) ;  The  Farmer,  (28) ;  Mr.  Duck  and  Mr.  Tur- 
key, (26);  Pat-a-Cake,  (33);  The  Pigeon  House,  (28);  Jack 
Frost,  (31);  America,  Humpty-Dumpty,  Wee  Willie  Winkie, 
Ba-Ba  Black  Sheep,  (24). 

Finger  Plays  —  The  Family,  (29) ;  The  Caterpillar,  The  Little  Boy's 
Walk,  (22). 

Rhythms  —  Simple  hand  movements,  musical  instruments,  etc. 
walking,  running,  jumping,  skipping;  the  home-work  of  mother; 
the  fanner's  work;  swaying  trees;  flying  birds. 

Games  —  Ball  games,  rolling  to  children,  rolling  to  center,  batting 
ball;  sense  games,  smell  and  taste;  The  Mystery  Man,  (38); 
Itiskit-Itaskit,  (34);  The  Mulberry  Bush,  (34);  Skip  Tag;  Let 
us  Chase  the  Squirrel,  (23);  Sleep  Fairy;  Train  Game,  (27); 
The  Pigeon  House,  (28) ;  Turn,  Said  the  Stream,  (30) ;  Going 
to  Grandmother's,  (28). 

Table  Work  —  Younger  group:  The  large  blocks  (Hennessy's) ; 
the  first  gift  —  activity ;  three  primary  colors ;  directions  round 
and  round,  and  up  and  down;  second  gift  —  group  work,  fam- 
ilies of  forms ;  third  gift  —  constructive  plays ;  the  circular  tab- 
lets; seed  work.  Free  and  directed  work  in  sand  bed;  black- 
board drawing,  clay  modeling,  bead  stringing,  pasting,  cut- 
ting —  for  control  of  scissors ;  over  and  over  sewing  —  without 
needles;  peg-boards;  stringing  of  seeds;  making  scrap  books. 


*For  significance  of  numbers  see  book  list. 


KINDERGARTEN  15 


Note.  With  the  younger  group  more  emphasis  is  placed  on  the 
occupation  work  than  on  the  gift  work. 

Older  Group :  First  gift  —  brief  re\^ew  of  cclor  and  emphasis 
on  directions;  the  fourth  and  fifth  gifts  —  constructive  work; 
square  and  right  angled  tablets;  sticks,  rings  and  seeds;  large 
blocks.  Group  work,  whole  class.  Free  and  illustrative  work 
in  sand  bed;  clay  modeling;  free  and  illustrative  drawing, 
crayons;  cutting,  free  and  to  line;  card-board  modeling,  slit- 
work  and  simplest  upright  forms;  folding — making  of  mounting 
books  for  children's  work;  sewing,  over  and  over  —  making  of 
folios  for  use  in  kindergarten;  weaving,  co-operative  and  in- 
dividual; parquetry. 

WINTER  TERM 

1.  Service  to  Others  —  Santa  Claus  as  the  personification  of  the 
spirit  of  giving;  children  as  givers;  the  story  of  the  first  Christ- 
mas. The  entire  month  of  December  is  devoted  to  the  Christ- 
mas thought. 

2.  The  New  Year  and  What  it  Brings  —  Seasons,  birthdays,  festi- 

vals, snow,  rain,  etc.     Idea  of  time-order  developed. 

3.  How  We  are  Protected  From  the  Elements  —  Warm  clothing  — 

tracing  to  its  source  some  child's  garment;  our  houses,  leading 
to  the  thought  of  a  helper,  the  carpenter;  the  heating  of  our 
homes  and  the  school,  leading  to  the  thought  of  the  work  of  the 
miners. 

4.  The  Spirit  of  Knighthood  —  A  brave  helper  of  today  —  the  fire- 
man; helpers  of  old  —  the  knights;  a  knight  of  fiction  —  St. 
Valentine;  a  knight  of  history  —  George  Washington;  children 
as  embodying  knightly  characteristics. 

Excursions  —  Visit  toy-shop. 

Stories  -  Nannie  Golden's  Christmas  Tree,  (Ms.);  The  Two  Stock- 
ings; Piccola,  (12);  St.  Luke's  version  of  the  Nativity;  The 
Fairy's  New  Year's  Gift,  ((>);  The  Three  Little  Pigs,  (4);  The 
Little  Heroine  of  Poverty  Flat,  (16);  King  Midas,  (5);  The 
Search  for  a  Good  Child,  (17);  The  Boy,  Cedric,  (adapted,  11); 
The  Boyhood  of  George  Washington,  (adapted,  12);  Dora  and 
the  Light  House,  (15);  Story  of  St.  Valentine;  'Twas  the  Night 
Before  Christmas. 


16  KINDERGARTEN 


Songs  —  Santa  Claus,  (27) ;  Christmas  Hymn,  (30) ;  The  Wonderful 
Tree,  (28) ;  Merry  Christmas,  (31) ;  The  New  and  the  Old  Year, 
(28) ;  Merry  Snowflakes,  (30) ;  The  Carpenter,  (29) ;  The  Miner, 
(31);  Ba,  Ba,  Black  Sheep,  (24);  The  Knights,  (29);  Our  Flag, 
(31) ;  Three  Cheers  for  the  Red,  White  and  Blue. 

Finger  Plays  — The  Lambkins,  (22). 

Rhythms  —  The  rocking  horse;  toys;  carpenter's  work;  miner's 
work ;  fancy  march  —  wheel  movement ;  tick-tack ;  military 
march;  feats  of  skill  —  running,  jumping,  throwing  spear, 
hurdling. 

Games  —  Quiet  game ;  Neighbor,  Neighbor  Over  the  Way ;  The 
Toy  Man,  (23) ;  The  Sand-Man,  (23) ;  Santa  Claus,  (22) ;  Snow- 
ball; Snow-Man,  (26);  Skating  Game,  (:37) ;  The  Cooper,  (28); 
The  Miner;  Little  Travellers,  (23) ;  The  Five  Knights,  (29) ;  The 
Soldier  Boy,  (34) ;  King  of  France,  (34) ;  The  Firemen. 

Table  Work  —  Younger  Group :  Large  blocks.  First  gift  —  color 
and  direction.  Second  gift  —  group  plays  and  whirling. 
Third  and  fourth  gifts  —  constructive  plays;  square  tablets; 
whole  rings.  V/ork  in  sand-bed,  black-board  drawing,  free 
drawing  with  crayons,  peg -boards.  Cutting,  pasting;  sewing — 
over  and  over;  folding  —  very  simple  folds.  Christmas  gifts 
based  on  occupation  work. 

Older  Group :  Large  blocks.  Second  gift  —  mechanical  in- 
ventions. Fourth,  fifth  and  sixth  gifts  —  constructive  work; 
right-angle  and  equilateral  triangular  tablets ;  sticks  and  rings ; 
combinations  of  gifts  for  illustrative  work.  Work  in  sand-bed, 
free  and  illustrative  drawing,  free  cutting;  card-board  modeling 
—  dolls'  furniture  (children  furnish  the  doll's  house,  thruout) ; 
v/eaving  —  combinations  of  weaving  and  sewing,  thus  making 
useful  objects;  poster-work;  Christmas  gifts  employing  the  oc- 
cupations with  which  the  children  are  familiar;  making  of 
badges,  pennants,  shields,  etc.,  for  holidays. 

SPRING  TERM 

1.  A  Helper,  The  Blacksmith.     Some  heroes  in  the  animal  world. 

Connects  with  the  work  of  the  winter  term. 

2.  Heralds  of  Spring. —  Nature's  heralds  —  The  wind,  the  sun,  the 
rain,  pussywillows,  the  robin;  children's  spring  plays;  the  wheel 
and  its  use. 


KINDERGARTEN  17 


3.  Nature's  Awakening  and  What  it  Brings  —  The  Easter  thought; 
the  farmer's  spring  work;  animal  Ufe  on  the  farm;  the  birds  — 
four  famihar  and  distinctive  birds  are  observed  as  to  their  homes 
and  hfe ;  the  trees  —  a  few  famihar  trees  studied ;  insects ;  the 
bees  or  ants;  the  kindergarten  garden,  planning  and  planting 
the  garden. 

4.  The  last  two  weeks  are  given  to  a  review  of  the  salient  features 
of  the  year's  work. 

Note. —  One  day  is  devoted  to  the  celebration  of  Froebel's  birth- 
day. 

Excursions  —  Each  week  excursions  are  made  to  note  signs  of 
nature's  awakening,  for  the  observation  of  birds,  trees,  etc. 

Stories  —  The  Little  Grey  Pony,  (9) ;  The  Story  of  Bruce,  (18) ;  The 
Mother  Stork;  Raggylug,  (4);  The  Little  Half  Chick,  (3);  The 
Disobedient  Weather-Vane,  (10);  The  Wind  and  the  Sun.  (6); 
The  Little  Green  Worm,  (13);  The  Sleeping  Beauty,  (1);  The 
Sheep  and  the  Pig,  (3) ;  The  Little  Red  Hen,  (3) ;  The  Lost 
Chicken,  (6) ;  The  Disobedient  Pine  Tree,  The  Bird's  Nest, 
Kindergarten  Review,  April  1909;  The  Myth  of  the  Wood- 
pecker, (3);  The  Nest  of  Many  Colors,  (6). 

Songs  —  The  Blacksmith,  (28);  Good  Morning  Glorious  Sun,  (31); 
The  Wind,  (29);  Pussy-Willow,  (31);  Pit-A-Pat,  (31);  Robin 
Redbreast,  (31);  The  Song  of  the  Rain,  (28);  Easter  Hymn, 
(30);  The  Bluebird,  (26);  The  Barnyard  Song,  (29);  The  Song 
of  the  Bee,  (28). 

Finger  Plays  —  How  the  Corn  Grew;  the  Caterpillar;  The  Counting 
Lesson  (22). 

Rhythms —  Hopping  and  flying  birds;  flying  kites;  the  frogs;  see- 
saw;  the   May-pole. 

Games  —  Two  Little  Windows,  (38) ;  Close  Hidden  in  my  Hand  it 
Lies,  (28);  The  Musician;  The  Visiting  Game, (23) ;  The  Cukoo, 
(29) ;  Oats.  Peas,  Beans,  and  Barley  Grow,  (34) ;  The  Bird's  Nest 
(29) ;  The  Busy  Bee,  (27) ;  Sense  games. 

Table  Work  —  Younger  Group :  First  gift  —  directions  and  colors. 
Second  gift  —  group  work.  Third  and  Fourth  gifts  —  con- 
structive work;  tablets,  rings  —  wholes  and  halves,  seeds,  large 
blocks  for  group  work.  Occupations  for  winter  term  contin- 
ued and  increased  in  difficulty. 
Older  Group  :     The  fifth  and  sixth  gifts  —  individual  and  group 


18 


KINDERGARTEN 


work.  The  children  now  having  good  control  of  material  are 
allowed  to  work  in  small  groups  of  two  or  three.  All  the  tab- 
lets, sticks,  and  rings;  combination  of  different  gifts  for  con- 
structive purposes  and  for  illustrative  work  —  individual  and 
group  work.  Directed  work  in  the  sand-bed;  card-board 
modeling,  advanced  forms;  clay  modeling,  free  and  illustra- 
tive ;  drawing  —  crayons ;  weaving ;  poster-work ;  making 
kites,  etc. 
Note  —  A  few  good  poems  are  read  to  the  children  during  the  year, 
and  the  children  learn  a  few  short  memory  gems. 


Stories 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
Poems 
19. 
20. 
21. 


BOOK  LIST 


Grimm's  Fairy  Tales. 

The  Children's  Book,  Scudder. 

For  the  Children's  Hour,  Bailey  &  Lewis. 

How  to  Tell  Stories  to  Children,  Bryant. 

The  Wonder  Book,  Hawthorne. 

In  the  Child's  World,  Poulsson. 

Parables  From  Nature,  Gatty. 

Stories  to  Tell  to  Children,  Bryant. 

Mother  Stories,  Lindsay. 

Two  Children  of  the  Foothills,  Harrison. 

In  Storyland,  Harrison. 

The  Story  Hour,  Wiggin. 

Cat -Tails  and  Other  Tales,  Howliston. 

Mother  Goose  Village,  Bingham. 

Boston  Collection. 

The  Little  Heroine  of  Poverty  Flat. 

More  Mother  Stories,  Lindsay. 

Stories  of  Brave  Dogs  from  the  St.  Nicholas. 


[- 


The  Child's  Garden  of  Verse,  Stevenson. 
Poems  of  Childhood,  Fields. 
The  Posy  Ring,  Wiggin  and  Smith. 
Songs  and  Finger  Plays 

22.  Finger  Plays,  Poulsson. 

23.  Holiday  Songs,  Poulsson. 


KINDERGARTEN  19 


24.  Mother  Goose  Songs,  Crowninshield. 

25.  More  Mother  Goose  Songs,  Crowninshield. 

26.  Small  Songs  for  Small  Singers,  Neidlingcr. 

27.  Song  Echoes  From  Childland,  Jenks  &  Rust. 

2S.  Songs  and  Games  for  Little  Ones,  Walker  and  Jenks. 

29.  Songs  and  Music  of  Froebel's  Mother  Play,  Blow. 

30.  Song  Stories  for  the  Kindergarten,  Hill. 

31.  Songs  of  the  Childworld,  Gaynor. 

32.  The  Child's  Garden  of  Song  —  TomUns. 

33.  Songs  for  Little  Children,  Smith. 
Games  and  Rhythms 

34.  Children's  Singing  Games,  Hofer 

35.  Instrumental  Characteristic  Rhythms,  Parts  1,11,  Ander- 

son. 

36.  Large  Rhythmic  Movements,  Rogers. 

37.  Music  for  the  Child  World. 

38.  Timely  Games  and  Songs  for  Kindergarten,  Reed. 


20  ARITHMETIC 


ARITHMETIC 

I.     INTRODUCTION 

"While  the  instruction  in  arithmetic  in  the  grades  is  designed 
in  part  to  afford  a  necessary  basis  for  more  advanced  work,  the 
chief  aims  are,  in  general,  to  furnish  sufficient  arithmetical  knowl- 
edge for  the  ordinary  occupations  of  life,  and  to  promote  habits 
of  accuracy,  logical  reasoning,  and  independence  of  thought 
and  judgment  and  to  aid  in  the  interpretation  of  all  great  aspects  of 
human  life.  The  special  aim  in  the  lower  grades  is  to  promote  speed 
and  accuracy,  especially  as  regards  the  combinations  of  numbers 
usually  memorized,  and  the  ready  use  of  necessary  tables.  In  the 
lower  grades  we  do  not  require  formal  analysis  on  the  part  of  the 
child.  He  is  allowed  to  state  his  conclusions  in  his  own  way,  tm- 
hampered  by  the  thought  of  the  "process."  He  can  be  sure  of  many 
things  which  he  cannot  logically  explain,  nor  express  in  technical 
teiTns.  The  premature  requirement  of  accurately  expressed  defi- 
nitions, niceties  of  expression,  statements  of  general  principles  and 
logical  analysis,  is  almost  certain  to  lead  to  mere  memory  work  and 
confused  notions,  thus  causing  an  earl 3^  distaste  for  the  subject.  It 
is  needless  to  say  that  the  teacher  should  present  each  new  subject 
in  a  logical  manner,  being  satisfied  that  the  children  follow  her 
explanation  and  appreciate  the  reasons  for  the  process.  The  forms 
of  expression  used  by  the  teacher  should  be  scientifically  accurate 
and,  to  an  extent,  technical.  Gradually  the  pupils  wdll  adopt  these 
forms  and,  if  habits  of  accuracy  and  rapidity  in  computation  are 
established,  they  w411  approach  the  formal  analysis  of  process  in 
the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  with  such  preparation  as  to  allow 
them  to  master  in  one  year  that  which,  under  the  forcing  process, 
they  fail  to  master  in  six. 

The  majority  of  pupils  who  have  completed  the  subject  of 
arithmetic  in  the  grades  are  inaccurate,  uncertain,  unable  to  do 


ARITHMETIC  21 


sustained  mental  work,  and  woefully  slow.  The  average  pupil 
figures,  but  he  does  not  see  relations;  he  ciphers,  but  he  does  not 
think;  he  reads  words  with  no  comprehension  of  thought.  The 
explanation  of  this  state  of  affairs  we  firmly  believe  to  be  too 
much  formal  analysis,  as  well  as  the  imposition  of  work  adapted 
to  higher  grades  upon  children  of  immature  minds.  It  is  cer- 
tainly most  important  that,  in  the  presentation  of  a  new  subject, 
the  teacher  should  lead  the  pupil  to  see  the  reason  for  each  step, 
but,  this  assured,  no  formal  explanation  should  be  demanded  from 
children  below  the  seventh  grade.  Previous  to  this  time,  possibly 
in  the  sixth  grade,  should  begin  the  transition  from  the  more  or  less 
mechanical  work  of  the  lower  classes  to  the  thought  work,  apphca- 
tion  of  principles,  and  logical  analysis  of  the  grammar  grades.  Up 
to  this  time  we  consider  it  of  far  greater  importance  that  a  child 
be  able  instantaneously  and  accurately  to  divide  %  by  %,  than,  in  a 
parrot-like  way,  to  go  through  a  logical  (?)  demonstration  of  the 
process.  For,  with  nine  children  out  of  ten,  explanations  are  largely 
memorized.  So  with  concrete  problems.  In  too  many  of  our 
schools,  problems  quite  beyond  the  comprehension  of  the  pupils 
have  been  forced  upon  them.  When  work  of  this  nature  is  given  to 
children  unprepared  for  it,  clear  thinking  is  of  necessity  an  impos- 
sibility. Hesitation  and  uncertainty  become  a  fixed  habit  which 
might  never  have  been  formed  had  the  pupil  attacked  his  problem 
for  the  first  time  with  a  maturity  capable  of  grasping  it.  The  chil- 
dren, being  absolutely  unable  to  solve  difficult  problems,  become 
so  accustomed  to  expect  aid  from  the  teacher  that  this,  too,  becomes 
a  fixed  habit  to  such  an  extent  that  when  the  age  is  reached  when 
independent  thinking  should  be  expected  it  is  found  necessary  to 
develop  every  new  subject  in  detail. 

It  is  then  our  purpose  to  make  the  required  work  in  arith- 
metic less  difficult  than  the  requirement  in  the  corresponding 
grades  of  most  of  the  public  schools.  To  this  end,  first,  the  num- 
ber work  of  our  first  school  year  is  done  incidentally  rather  than 
formally;  second,  recognizing  the  fact  that  strong  mathematical 
development  is  to  be  obtained  from  the  study  of  arithmetic  far 
beyond  the  grasp  of  the  eighth  grade  child,  the  completion  of  the 
subject  is  assigned  to  two  terms  in  the  third  year  of  the  course  in 
the  Normal  Department,  after  the  study  of  algebra  and  geometry 
has  paved  the  way  to  a  real  understanding  of  the  principles  involved ; 


22  ARITHMETIC 


and  third,  for  the  better  mastery  of  more  important  topics  we 
attempt  to  save  time  through  the  elimination  of  unnecessary  mat- 
ter which  formerly  may  have  been  valuable,  but  which  we  feel 
should  be  discarded  because  the  old  involved  methods  of  solution 
have  given  place  to  newer  and  simpler  methods,  as  in  proportion 
and  in  the  treatment  of  roots  by  the  graphic  method,  or 
because,  as  business  problems,  they  are  obsolete,  as  in  partnership, 
exchange,  present  worth,  etc.  It  was  not  until  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century  that  the  decimal  fraction  had  any  footing  in 
the  schools,  although  it  was  invented  some  one  hundred  fifty  years 
prior  to  this  time.  The  absence  of  the  decimal  fraction  explains 
our  inheritance  of  the  greatest  common  divisor  and  least  common 
multiple  of  large  numbers,  these  being  then  needed  for  the  solution 
of  problems  involving  the  enormous  common  fractions  which  are 
now  so  uncommon,  hence,  except  for  purposes  of  logical  exercise 
in  advanced  work,  so  that  pupils  have  a  conscious  method  of  pro- 
cedure, we  omit  problems  in  greatest  common  divisor  and  least 
common  multiple. 

As  number  is  essentially  the  result  of  measurement  and  com- 
parison, the  idea  of  comparison  is  emphasized  thruout  the  whole 
course  in  arithmetic.  In  this  connection  stress  is  laid  upon  the 
true  nature  of  the  unit  —  not  a  "single  thing  or  one,"  but  any 
quantity  used  as  a  basis  of  measurement  or  comparison.  Com- 
parisons are  required  to  be  made  directly,  not  thru  the  medium  of 
the  one,  as  is  so  frequently  the  case.  To  illustrate,  let  us  compare 
the  two  methods  of  solving  the  following  problem  : 

If  4  yards  of  cloth  cost  $5.00,  find  the  cost  of  8  yards. 

First  solution:  Since  4  yards  cost  $5.00,  one  yard  costs  one- 
fourth  of  S5.00,  or  SI. 25.     Then  8  yards  cost  $1.25,  or  $10.00. 

Second  solution:  Since  4  yards  cost  $5.00,  8  yards  cost  2 
$5.00,  or  $10.00. 

In  the  second  solution  the  work  is  shortened  by  making  the 
given  quantity  the  basis  of  comparison,  instead  of  the  intermediate 
one  yard. 

Thruout  the  work  in  comparison  the  difificult  complex  fractions 
should  be  avoided.  Children  may  easily  be  drilled  to  make  readily 
the  necessary  changes  in  the  quantities  given  in  order  that  they 
may  be  easily  compared.  If  2  yards  is  to  be  compared  with  2h 
yards,  think  of  each  quantity    as  expressed  in   half-yards.     It   is 


ARITHMETIC  23 


at  once  seen  that  tlie  first  is  expressed  by  the  number  4,  the  sec- 
ond by  5.  So  3  yards  compared  with  4,^  yards  is  i.j,  thinking  of 
the  number  of  third-yards  in  each  case.  Since,  when  the  units 
are  ahkc,  the  numbers  only  are  compared,  the  numbers  only 
should  be  mentioned  in  making  the  comparison.  For  instance,  in 
comparing  §  of  a  mile  with  |  of  a  mile,  think  of  both  as  twelfths, 
but  mention  only  the  number  of  twelfths ;  so  we  simply  compare 
8  with  9. 

The  same  method  is  applied  to  the  solution  of  problems  in 
compound  proportion.  To  illustrate:  If  a  tank  12  ft.  long,  4^ 
ft.  wide  and  §  of  a  foot  deep  holds  270  gallons,  how  many  gallons 
does  a  tank  24  ft.  long,  3  ft.  wide  and  |  of  a  foot  deep  hold? 

7  1 35 

^  x^x^x^i^^Cgal. 

=472  i  gallons 

>€rx^ 

Since  a  tank  12  ft.  long  contains  270  gallons,  one  24  ft.  long 
contains  twice  as  much.  Since  one  4V  ft.  wide  contains  that 
amount,  one  3  ft.  wide  contains  \  of  that  amount.  Since  one  \ 
of  a  foot  deep  contains  a  certain  amount,  one  ^  of  a  foot  deep 
contains  Te  of  that  amount. 

So  in  finding  the  number  of  any  units  of  given  dimensions 
contained  in  a  given  volume,  we  compare  the  dimensions  of  the 
whole  with  those  of  the  unit;  as:  How  many  cords  of  wood  in  a 
pile  40  ft.  long,  30  ft.  wide,  and  G  ft.  high? 

Solution:  Since  a  pile  8  ft.  long,  4  ft.  wide,  and  4  ft.  high 
contains  1  cord,  a  pile  40  ft.  long,  30  ft.  wide,  and  C)  ft.  high  con- 
tains 5x15x3x1  cord 

=56 1  cords 

2X2 

Again,  in  reducing  cjuantities  from  lower  to  higher  units,  the 
same  method  —  comparison — is  used;  as:  Reduce  5  rods,  4  yards, 
2  ft.,  6  in.  to  rods.  6  in.  =  ^  ft.  2^  ft.  is  \  of  3  ft.,  or  %  yd.  4o 
yards  is  il  of  5^  yds.,  or  i^  rd.  Hence  the  whole  quantity  is 
5  33  rods. 

So  in  division  of  decimals  we  teach  the  pupils  to  place  the 
decimal  point  in  the  quotient  as  soon  as  the  proper  order  is  reached 


24  ARITHMETIC 


instead  of  counting  the  number  of  orders  after  the  division.  This 
is  easily  done  by  reducing  the  dividend  to  the  same  unit  as  the 
divisor,  when  they  may  be  compared  as  integers.  To  illustrate: 
If  we  are  to  divide  25.67893  by  .035,  since  the  divisor  is  a  certain 
number  of  thousandths,  we  reduce  the  dividend  to  thousandths  by 
simply  placing  a  mark  ( ^ )  after  the  thousandths  digit ;  then  when 
that  digit  is  reached  place  the  decimal  point.  It  is  well  to  write 
the  c[uotient  above  the  dividend,  not  only  because  it  makes  the 
work  more  compact,  but  because,  the  decimal  point  coming  di- 
rectly over  the  mark  placed  in  the  dividend,  error  is  less  liable 
to  occur. 

733.68 


.035)  25.678^93 
245 


117 
105 


128 
105 

239 
210 


293 
280 


13 

In  percentage  we  dwell  upon  the  fact  that  the  per  cent  is 
simpl}^  a  number  expressing  the  ratio  of  a  quantity  to  a  unit  of 
measure,  and,  consequently,  like  any  number,  may  be  applied  only 
to  its  unit.  The  pupils  are  led  first  to  deteiTnine  the  unit,  as,  in 
profit  and  loss  the  unit  is  the  cost,  as  it  is  the  quantity  with  which 
the  profit  is  compared;  in  commission  it  is  the  buying  price  when 
buying,  the  selling  price  when  selling,  etc. 

The  following  general  directions  are  formally  stated  for  solv- 
ing problems  in  percentage : 

1st.     Determine  the  unit. 

2d.     If  the  unit  is  given,  apply  the  per  cent  to  it. 

3d.  If  the  unit  is  not  given  it  must  be  represented  by  some 
convenient  fomi,  and  two  quantities  must  be  found  equal  to  the 
same  thing,  hence  equal  to  each  other. 


ARITHMETIC  25 


These  formal  directions  arc  given  only  after  the  pupils  liavc 
discovered  through  the  solution  of  simple  problems  that  this  is 
just  what  they  really  do  in  the  solution  of  any  problem. 

In  illustration  of  this  method  take  an  ordinary  problem  in 
commission  involving  both  buying  and  selling. 

My  agent  sells  for  me  $1030  worth  of  flour  at  2%  commission, 
and  with  tlie  net  proceeds  buys  wheat,  deducting  his  commission 
at  3%.     Required  the  cost  of  the  wheat. 

Since  in  the  first  transaction  the  agent  is  selling  goods,  the 
unit  is  the  selling  price,  so  the  commission  is  2%  of  S1030,  or  S20.G(), 
leaving  the  net  proceeds  $1009.40.     In  the  second  transactitm  the 
unit  is  the  buying  price  which  is  not  given. 
lOO^o  oi  the  buying  price  =  buying  price. 
103%   "      "  "  "      =        "  "        and  commission. 

$1000.40 

103%  of  buying  price  =  S1009.40. 
Buying  price  =  \m  of  SI 009.40  =  $980.00. 

In  finding  what  per  cent  one  quantity  is  of  another  we  simply 
compare  the  wliole  with  the  unit  if  the  comparison  can  be  easily 
made,  as  in  the  following  problem: 

Goods  costing  S5000  are  sold  to  gain  $2000.  Required,  the 
gain  per  cent.     The  gain  is  g  or  40%  of  the  cost. 

The  method  used  in  case  the  given  quantities  are  not  easily 
compared  may  be  shown  in  the  solution  of  the  following: 

Goods  costing  $2536.4")  are  sold  to  gain  $75. 2().  Required, 
the  gain  per  cent. 

Solution:  Had  the  gain  been  one  per  cent,  it  would  have 
been  $25.3()45,  but  since  the  gain  is  $75.20  it  is  as  many  per  cent 
as  there  are  $25.3645  in  $75.26  or  2.9  =  2.9%. 

In  our  arithmetic  classes  we  try  to  emphasize  the  importance 
of  making  each  new  subject  treated  a  natural  outgrowth  from  that 
previously  pursued,  and  of  never  giving  a  direction  until  the  need 
is  felt;  that  rules  should  be  memorized  and  followed  only  in  the 
very  rare  cases  when  their  use  will  materially  save  time;  that  in 
the  lower  grades  explanations  should  be  made  by  mere  illustra- 
tion, rather  than  by  the  use  of  general  principles;  that  in  the  higher 
grades  the  converse  is  true;  that  the  complete,  accurate  defini- 
tion has  no  place  in  the  mental  equipment  of  the  child,  while  it  is 
a  most  necessary  adjunct  to  the  teacher's  pedagogical  tool  chest. 


26  ARITHMETIC 


While  the  physical  object  should  have  little  or  no  place  in 
the  mathematical  work  of  the  higher  grades,  yet  its  analogue,  the 
mental  image,  should  be  ever  present.  Pupils  are  too  prone  to 
think  of  figures  rather  than  of  magnitudes.  Many  a  time  one 
who  seems  to  be  hopelessly  floundering  is  brought  to  his  senses  by 
being  told  to  look  at  the  thing  itself,  and  see  how  it  is.  Hence  in 
so-called  business  problems  the  pupil  should  enter  into  the  trans- 
action himself,  doing  just  what  the  supposed  participant  did. 

As  an  exercise  in  mathematical  judgment  a  great  deal  of  es- 
timating is  demanded;  in  fact,  with  most  of  the  problems  only 
approximate  results  are  required.  It  is  astonishing  to  find  how 
little  our  pupils  are  trained  in  this  matter  of  judgment.  Results 
manifestly  absurd  are  accepted  without  question.  It  is  a  good 
sign  that  in  one  or  two  arithmetics  recently  published  many  prob- 
lems are  given  requiring  only  approximations. 

Roughly  speaking,  about  one-third  of  the  recitation  time  above 
the  fifth  grade  should  be  given  to  written  work,  one-third  to  ac- 
curate oral  work,  and  one-third  to  forecasting  —  giving  approx- 
imate results. 

It  should  be  the  aim  to  free  the  pupil  from  the  influence  of 
the  printed  page,  to  lead  him  to  deal  with  his  problems  as  in  real 
life.  To  this  end,  problems  should  be  introduced  involving  actual 
occurrences  taking  place  about  him  and  he  should  be  directed  to 
make  problems  of  his  own. 

General  References:  McMurry's  Special  Method  in  Arith- 
metic; Young's  The  Teaching  of  Mathematics;  Smith's  The  Teach- 
ing of  Elementary  Mathematics;  Myer's  Monograph,  Deeper  and 
Richer  Meanings  of  Elementary  Mathematical  Teaching. 

II.     SUBJECT-MATTER 

FIRST  GRADE 

(introductory  to  arithmetic) 
(Numbers  1  -  100) 

1.  Counting  by  1  's,  2's,  5's,  and  lO's.     2.   Finding  sums  by  counting. 
3.  Comparing  groups  thru  counting.     4.  Using  fractions  ^,  j. 


ARITHMETIC  27 


5.  Telling  time  by  whole,  half,  and  quarter  hours. 

6.  Using  inch,  foot,  yard,  pint,  and  quart  measures. 

7.  Reading  and  writing  figures. 

Although  this  definite  amount  of  work  is  covered,  it  is  taught 
incidentally  rather  than  formally.  Opportunities  are  seized,  or 
made,  which  require  the  child  to  do  those  things  which  give  him  a 
rational  conception  (steadily  growing  in  deliniteness)  of  the  num- 
bers found  between  1  and  100,  and  of  the  other  standards  of  meas- 
urement mentioned  above. 

References:  See  general  references;  Language,  Number  and 
Construction,  Frances  Lilhan  Taylor,  in  Primary  Education,  Jan.- 
June,  1902;  Hall's  Primary  Arithmetic,  Introduction;  Teachers' 
College  Record,  Jan.  1909,  pages  1-70;  Walter's  Number  Manual; 
The  Curriculum  of  the  Elementary  School,  reprinted  from  Teach- 
ers' College  Record,  1908,  pages  93-100. 

SECOND  GRADE 
(Numbers  1  -  100) 

1.  Learning  the  45  addition  facts:  combinations  of  numbers  thru 

10  in  the  first  semester,  and  later  adding  10  and  9  to  all  num- 
bers, adding  doubles,  and  the  9  remaining  combinations. 

2.  Using  the  fractions  ^,  |,  }. 

3.  Using  cent,  nickel,  dime,  quarter,  fifty-cent  piece,  and  dollar  (toy 

money). 

4.  Reading  and  writing  figures. 

n.   Writing  examples  in  addition,  in  column  form  chiefly. 

Through  opportunities  arising  incidentally  in  school  manage- 
ment, hand  work,  and  free  play,  and  in  especially  prepared  games 
and  dramatizations,  the  children  increase  the  intelligence  and  defi- 
niteness  of  their  numerical  concepts.  Accuracy  and  speed  are 
gained  through  competitive  games  and  drills. 

References:  Those  given  for  first  grade  and  The' Curricu- 
lum of  the  Elementary  School,  pages  103- 167. 

THIRD  GRADE 

Since,  beyond  the  second  grade,  number  work  gradually  dif- 
ferentiates itself  into  a  separate  "study"  having  its  own  body  of 
thought  as  well  as  its  definite  processes,  at  least  three  distinct  tho 


28  ARITHMETIC 


overlapping  aims  must  be  kept  in  mind.  These  are:  (1)  To 
make  pupils  feel,  thru  natural  life-situations,  a  vital  need  for  each 
of  the  fundamental  operations;  (2)  To  help  pupils  to  the  mastery 
of  these  mathematically  essential  operations  so  that  work  may 
be  done  with  almost  machine-like  precision  and  speed ;  (3)  To  find 
such  uses  for  these  operations  in  the  child's  social  life  as  to  point 
to  the  value  of  their  being  automatically  learned,  to  give  children 
a  feeling  of  power  over  certain  economic  situations,  to  arouse 
"deep  interest,  surprise,  and  excitement"  over  the  "valuable 
thoughts"  introduced,  or  to  contribute  to  their  actual  knowledge. 

In  September  all  classes  are  given  from  two  to  five  weeks' 
careful  review  of  all  preceding  work,  whereas  mid-year  classes  need 
only  a  brief  review,  if  any,  since  thruout  the  year,  all  mathematical 
facts  once  conquered  are  constantly  reviewed  and  employed. 

References:  Same  as  general,  plus  various  text  books  in  arith- 
metic —  D.  E.  Smith,  Young  &  Jackson,  Milne,  Myers,  and  others. 

B  Class 

1.  Reading  and  writing  of  numbers  of  six  orders. 

2.  Additive  combinations  perfectly  learned  and  applied  to  all 
combinations  below  100. 

3.  Coltunn  and  long  addition  mastered. 

4.  Comparison  of  the  fractional  units  of  circles,  surfaces,  lines, 
and  solids. 

5.  Halves  of  any  numbers. 

6.  Thirds  and  fourths  of  evenly  divisible  numbers,  and  es- 
pecially such  numbers  as  are  needed  in  denominate  number  tables. 

7.  Compound  numbers  learned  in  earlier  grades  constantly 
used,  and  such  others  added  as  are  needed  in  computations,  and 
in  applications  of  processes  to  life  problems. 

8.  Sense  perception  constantly  exercised  in  estimating,  in 
measuring,  in  constructive  work,  etc. 

9.  Problems  with  one  condition  and  problems  requiring  dia- 
grams to  aid  in  the  solution  of  the  problem  —  not  to  illustrate  it 
after  it  is  solved. 

10.  Texts:  Hall,  Arithmetic  Primer,  pp.  1-63.  Supplemen- 
tary: Walsh,  Primary  Arithmetic,  pp.  1-25,  to  subtraction.  Note: 
vSolve  all  "Slate  Problems"  mentally,  however;  and  in  general  avoid 
over-much  written  work.     Additional  texts  in  contemplation. 


ARITHMETIC  29 


A  Class 

1.  After  a  thoro  review  of  all  previous  work,  conquer  the  sub- 
ject of  subtraction.  Use  Walsh's  Primary  Arithmetic,  pp.  25-42, 
and  much  outside  work  of  the  same  nature. 

2.  Apply  both  addition  and  subtraction  to  problems  that  are 
worth  while,  and  to  those  arising  in  other  classes. 

3.  Fix  use  of  terms  sum,  difference,  product,  etc.,  by  daily  use. 

4.  Keep  up  practice  upon  subjects  already  covered,  but  do 
not  let  this  work  degenerate  into  mere  repetition.  Test  briefly 
but  frequently  upon  all  points  covered,  teaching  good  form  for 
written  work. 

5.  Recall  simpler  multiplicative  combinations  already  learned, 
and  use  in  easy  multiplication  and  division.  Use  also  in  fractional 
form,  as  lo  of  120;  h  of  (U;  etc. 

G.  Employ  fractions  and  ratios  as  used  in  denominate  num- 
ber tables;  halves  of  all  numbers,  thirds  and  fourths  of  many 
numbers,  fifths  and  tenths  of  evenly  divisible  numbers,  sixths  and 
twelfths  used  in  linear  measure,  in  the  table  of  time,  and  in  use  of 
ones  in  a  dozen,  sevenths  in  studying  days  in  a  week. 

7.  Emphasize  skill  in  measurements,  and  the  relations  of  units 
of  measure  in  each  denominate  number  table  used. 

Text:  Hall,  Arithmetic  Primer  completed,  i.  e.  pp.  63-lOS. 
Note:  If  done  thoroly,  this  will  result  in  the  mastery  of  the  earlier 
multiplication  tables,  but,  at  this  point,  the  pupil  should  not  be 
held  back  to  master  them.  The  table  of  2's  as  a  whole,  and  a  few 
parts  of  other  tables  (as  required  in  work  with  compound  numbers) 
may  be  drilled  upon  and  used  in  simple  examples  and  problems. 

Some  mid-year  classes  may  be  able  to  begin  the  Rational 
Elementary  Arithmetic. 

FOURTH  GRADE 
B  Class 

1.  Review  any  work  done  in  Rational  Elementary  Aritiimetic, 
as  well  as  the  mechanical  work  of  preceding  grades. 

2.  Teach  the  multiplication  tables  in  the  order  of  their  least 
difficulty,  all  along  applying  facts  learned,  to  the  processes  of  long 
multiplication,  short  division,  and  simple  factoring,  and  especial- 
ly to  economic  problems,  one  of  which  is  bill-making. 


30  ARITHMETIC 


3.  Simple  bill-making  as  a  drill  in  multiplication.  Children 
study  prices  and  make  own  bills  for  class  use. 

4.  From  this  grows  the  need  of  knowing  how  to  read,  write, 
and  compute  U.  S.  money. 

5.  As  longer  multiplication  examples  are  given,  there  comes 
the  need  of  notation  and  numeration  to  millions  or  beyond,  so 
we  develop  the  important  principles  of  Arabic  notation. 

6.  Ratio  and  fraction  work  are  emphasized  in  the  text. 
Text:     Belfield  &  Brooks,   Rational  Elementary  Arithmetic, 

pp.  7-68 

Walsh,  Primary  Arithmetic  as  needed  for  supplementary  drills 
in  multiplication. 

Reference:     "The    Multiplication    Tables"    by    Theda    Gilde- 
meister  —  a  10c  pamphlet,  published  by  A.  Flanagan,  Chicago. 
A  Class 

1.  As  before,  reviews  must  be  frequent,  but  intelligent  and 
spirited  as  well.     Larger  ntimbers  in  multiplication  are  drilled  upon. 

2.  Long  division  with  two  figures  in  the  divisor  taught. 

3.  Concrete  denominate  work  with  construction  and  draw- 
ings emphasized. 

4.  Technical  terms  used  in  all  the  fundamental  operations 
should  by  this  time  be  so  thoroly  fixed  as  to  make  possible  the 
derivation  of  good  definitions. 

5.  The  principles  of  Roman  notation  mastered  with  notation 
and  numeration  thru  M.     Dates  written. 

6.  Daily  practice  in  using  ratios,  fractions,  and  denominate 
numbers,  excellent  work  on  which  is  found  in  the  text. 

Text:  Belfield  &  Brooks,  Rational  Elementary  Arithmetic, 
pp.  68-127. 

Walsh,  Primary  Arithmetic,  pp.  42-153  for  supplementary 
work. 

FIFTH  GRADE 
B  Class 

1.  Review  work  of  previous  grade. 

2.  Complete  the  multipHcation  tables. 

3.  Drill  in  the  fundamental  processes  for  speed  and  accuracy. 

4.  Long  division  using  more  than  two  figures  in  the  divisor. 
By  the  end  of  the  B  class  the  fundamental  operations  should  be 
well  in  hand. 


ARITHMETIC  31 


5.  Simple  denominate  number  work  dealing  with  the  units 
used  in  common  life  —  linear,  surface,  cubic,  liquid,  dry,  avoirdu- 
pois weight,  measures  of  time.  United  States  money.  Develop 
units  by  actual  measurement  and  build  up  the  tables. 

6.  Common  fractions  —  divide  a  whole  and  name  parts;  con- 
struct whole  from  parts. 

7.  Concrete  problems  involving  small  fractions,  introduced 
without  formal  analysis. 

S.  Problems  occurring  in  connection  with  the  work  of  the 
grade  —  manual  training,  geography,  history,  domestic  art,  etc. 

9.  Children  are  led  to  invent  problems. 
10.  Special  stress  is  laid  upon  fomi  and  neatness  of  the  written 
work. 

Text:  Belfield  &  Brooks,  Rational  Arithmetic,  pp.  127-185, 
and  197-199  for  division.  Supplementary:  Milne,  Progressive 
Arithmetic,  Books  I  and  II;  Smith,  Primary  Arithmetic;  Myers, 
Book  II. 

References:     All  given  above. 
A  Class 

1.  Drill  and  problem  work  involving  the  fundamental  opera- 
tions. 

2.  Measurements  —  linear,  square,  cubic,  licjuid,  dry,  avoirdu- 
pois weight,  time,  paper.  Thoroly  master  the  practical  parts  of 
tables. 

3.  Addition  and  subtraction  of  simple  fractions.  Other  fun- 
damental operations  in  fractions  used  as  occasion  requires. 

4.  Bill  writing,  with  stress  laid  upon  form;  finding  amounts 
of;  receipting.  Material  for  this  is  furnished  by  work  of  the  other 
subjects,  especially  manual  work  and  domestic  art. 

5.  Problems  growing  out  of  work  in  other  subjects. 

6.  Original  problems. 

Text:  Belfield  &  Brooks,  Rational  Elementary  Arithmetic, 
pp.  185-262.  Supplementary:  Smith,  Intermediate  Arithmetic; 
Southworth  &  Stone,  Book  I;  Myers,  Book  II. 

SIXTH  GRADE 
B  Class 

The  work  here  deals  very  largely  with  facts  and  experiences 
within  the  daily  life  of  the  child.     We  take  actual  measurements 


ARITHMETIC 


in  and  about  the  building;  any  building  or  repairing  being  done  is 
noted;  estimates  of  materials  needed,  cost  of  construction,  etc., 
are  made;  room  ventilation  is  tested.  Practical  problems  arise  in 
manual  training,  map  drawing,  and  reading.  Pupils  are  led  to 
forecasting  —  giving  approximate  results  —  by  such  questions  as : 
How  long  do  you  think  this  black  board  is?  How  wide?  How 
much  do  you  think  it  would  cost  to  slate  it  ?  Estimate  the  amount 
of  money  needed  to  slate  the  boards  in  this  room,  etc.  What  do 
you  suppose  it  costs  to  heat  this  building  for  one  day  —  a  week  — 
a  term  —  a  year  ? 

Text:     Southworth  and  Stone,  Book  II,  pp.  1-62,  197-236. 

References;     Southworth    and    Stone,    Arithmetic,    Book    I; 
Smith,  Intermediate  Arithmetic. 
A  Class 

Simple  work  in  fractions,  both  common  and  decimal,  is  the 
basis  of  the  work  in  this  grade.  Stress  is  laid  upon  the  develop- 
ment of  and  drill  in  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication  and 
division  of  fractions. 

In  addition  and  subtraction  we  train  the  pupils  to  find  the 
least  common  multiple  first  by  inspection,  then  by  factoring.  The 
greatest  common  divisor  is  similarly  taught  when  fractions  are  re- 
duced to  lower  terms.  In  multiplication  and  division  of  fractions 
much  time  should  be  given  to  rapid  work  in  which  one  integral 
term  is  included. 

Treat  decimal  fractions,  not  as  a  subject  new  and  distinct, 
but  show  that,  since  the  relations  between  the  orders  of  decimal 
fractions  is  identical  with  that  between  the  orders  of  integers,  all 
operations  may  be  performed  in  the  same  manner  as  in  integers. 

Very  simple  problems  in  interest  are  taught  as  an  application 
of  decimals. 

Text:  Southworth  and  Stone,  Arithmetic,  Book  II,  pp.  68- 
96,  111-174. 

SEVENTH  GRADE 
B  Class 

The  study  of  measurements  occupies  the  entire  semester.  The 
topics  considered  are:  Measurements  of  angles;  of  lines;  of  sur- 
faces, including  rectangles  (with  application  to  land,  flooring,  roof- 
ing, carpeting,  papering),  triangles,  and  circles;  of  solids,  including 
cubes,  prisms,  and  cylinders. 


ARITHMETIC  33 


Text:     Southworth    and    Stone,    Arithmetic,    Book    III,    pp. 
85-131.     Sensenig  and  Anderson,  pp.  1:39-1G1;  169-185. 
A  Class 

The  study  of  percentage,  with  application  to  profit  and  loss, 
interest,  and  commercial  discount,  is  the  work  of  the  semester. 

All  intricate  problems  are  avoided,  the  aim  being  to  bring 
about  a  thoro  comprehension  of  the  principles  of  percentage  as 
applied  to  simple  problems.  The  relation  of  percentage  to  common 
fractions  is  emphasized.  To  this  end  such  per  cents  only  as  may 
be  readily  changed  to  common  fractions  are  dealt  with  at  first. 

Text:  Southworth  and  Stone,  Arithmetic,  Book  III,  ])p. 
131-161;  Sensenig  and  Anderson,  pp.  19S-217;  220-228. 

EIGHTH  GRADE 
B  Class 

The  first  six  weeks  are  occupied  with  applications  of  percent- 
age, the  advance  work  including  commission,  insurance,  and  taxes. 
The  remainder  of  the  semester  is  given  to  a  study  of  means  of 
sa\'ing  and  investing  money,  and  of  cancelling  indebtedness.  The 
topics  included  are : 

1.  Banking  —  a  study  of -the  various  kinds  of  banks,  their 
purpose  and  safety,  and  the  method  of  opening  a  bank  account. 

2.  Loaning  money  —  promissory  notes  and  review  of  interest. 

3.  Stocks  and  bonds  —  a  study  of  the  organization  and  im- 
portance of  corporations,  the  work  of  stock  exchanges,  differences 
between  preferred  and  common  stock,  and  between  stocks  and 
bonds. 

4.  Paying  and  collecting  money  by  telegraph,  registered  let- 
ter, post  office  or  express  money  orders,  checks,  and  drafts. 

A  Class 

During  the  first  six  weeks  teach  square  root  and  the  metric 
system  and  review  the  topics  previously  studied.  This  review  work 
may  be  continued  during  the  remaining  twelve  weeks  or  algebra 
may  be  introduced.  In  algebra  teach  the  interpretation  of  simple 
algebraic  expressions,  give  simple  work  in  the  four  fundamental 
processes  and  study  the  equation,  employing  it  in  the  solution  of 
problems  previously  solved  by  arithmetic. 


34  GEOGRAPHY 


GEOGRAPHY 

I.     INTRODUCTION 

The  value  of  any  subject  in  the  school  course  depends  upon  the 
extent  to  which  it  develops  the  powers  of  the  pupil  and  prepares 
him  for  adult  life  by  giving  a  practical  education,  not  only  prac- 
tical in  the  commercial  sense,  but  also  in  the  larger  sense  of  the 
complete  and  harmonious  development  of  the  mind  and  body 
towards  the  realization  of  good  character,  right  citizenship,  and 
social  worth.  Hence  we  may  define  geography  as  the  "relation 
of  the  earth  to  life."  Measured  by  this  standard  the  educa- 
tional value  of  geography  is  high.  It  makes  for  refinement, 
character,  and  a  broad  philanthropy  by  bringing  the  child  into 
contact  with  the  earth  and  the  heavens  and  revealing  to  him 
the  beauty  and  grandeur  of  the  Creator's  work  and  our  depend- 
ence on  his  laws;  by  explaining  how  these  laws  determine  various 
environments  which  in  turn  govern  the  occupations,  the  methods 
of  life,  and  the  mental  and  physical  conditions  of  peoples  the 
world  over;  and  by  showing  how  the  consequent  difference  in 
productions  brings  about  an  exchange  of  commodities,  and 
results  in  the  interrelations  of  peoples  and  individuals, 
the  dependence  of  one  person  on  another,  and  the  in- 
ter-dependence of  all.  It  gives  culture  by  acquainting  the  pupil 
with  the  ideas,  institutions,  and  the  culture  of  other  peoples:  and, 
like  travel,  for  which  it  is  a  substitute,  it  tends  to  produce  breadth 
of  mind  and  liberality  of  thought.  It  develops  a  spirit  of  investi- 
gation and  gives  impetus  to  seek  the  truth.  It  is  a  valuable  aid 
to  other  subjects,  especially  language  work  and  reading,  nature 
study,  and  history.  It  gives  the  pupil  a  fund  of  information  that 
will  make  his  life  more  full  and  useful  and  will  subsequently  prove 
of  daily  value  in  conversation,  reading,  and  business.  It  makes 
the  pupil  feel  at  home  in  the  world  he  lives  in;  and  helps  him  to 
see  that  true  citizenship  is  partnership  in  every  good  undertaking. 


GEOGRAPHY  35 


General  References: 

Special  Method  in  Geography,  McMurry. 

New  Basis  of  Geography,  Redway. 

Course  of  Study  accompanying  text  books,  Dodge. 

Home  Geography,  McMurry. 

Excursions  and  Lessons  in  Home  Geography,  McMurry. 

International  Geography,  Mill. 

In  the  Journal  of  Geography: — The  Importance  of  Geography 
in  Education,  James  Bryce,  Vol.  I,  pp.  145-51,  206-13. 

On  Methods  of  Teaching  Geography,  T.  G.  Rooper,  Vol.  I, 
pp.  70-79. 

Home  Geography,  Davis,  Vol.  IV,  p.  1. 

Oswego  Geography  Course,  Farnham,  Vol.  V,  pp.  100  and  211. 

Function  of  Geography  in  Elementary  Schools,  Bagley,  Vol. 
Ill,  p.  222. 

Geography  in  Intennediate  Grades,  Bagley,  Vol.  IV,  p.  299. 

Correlation  of  Geography  and  History,  Allen,  Vol.  II,  p.  404. 

Training  Teachers  for  the  Study  of  Home  Geography,  Philip 
Emerson,  Vol.  I,  pp.  391-400. 

Geography  in  Germany,  The  Primary  and  Secondary  Schools, 
J.  R.  Smith,  Vol.  I,  pp.  420-30. 

The  Course  of  Study  in  Geography  at  the  Speycr  School, 
Teachers'  College,  Vol.  II,  pp.  83-95. 

Geographical  Exhibitions;  Their  Value  and  How  to  Plan  Them, 
A.  De  Riemer,  Vol.  II,  pp.  136-44. 

Geographical  Text-books  and  Geographical  Teaching,  M.  K. 
Genthc,  \'ol.  II. 

In  Bulletin  of  American  Bureau  of  Geography: — Educational 
Value  of  Geography  Study,  E.  I.  Miller,  Vol.  I,  pp.  5-11. 

What  to  teach  in  Geography,  Henry  McCormick,  Vol.  I,  pp. 
11-20. 

A  Lesson  Plan  for  the  Study  of  a  Natural  Product,  Clare  L. 
Poe,  Vol.  I. 

Illustrative  Lesson  upon  Latitude  and  Longitude  for  Fourth 
Grade  or  Above,  Theda  Gildemeister,  Vol.  I. 

A  List  of  Books,  Reports,  and  Articles  Dealing  with  the  Teach- 
ing of  Geography,  J.  F.  Chamberlain,  Vol.  I. 

In  the  Journal  of  School  Geography : — A  School  Course  in  Geog- 
raphy, R.  E.  Dodge,  Vols.  IV  and  \'. 


36  GEOGRAPHY 

II.     SUBJECT  MATTER 

PRIMARY  GEOGRAPHY 

Primary  geography,  as  we  treat  it,  has  to  do  with  man's  re- 
sources and  adventures,  in  acquiring  shelter,  food,  and  clothing, 
as  exhibited  in  the  child's  immediate  vicinity.  The  child  must  re- 
live, to  some  extent,  what  man  has  done,  to  gain  any  understand- 
ing of  his  present  complex  environment.  This  knowledge  is  es- 
sential as  a  basis  for  an  intelligent  appreciation  of  the  physical  and 
political  geography  of  the  world,  treated  later  in  the  grades. 

Necessity  was  the  force  that  produced  in  man  effective  effort. 
The  child  feels  no  such  motive,  but  his  instincts  of  activity,  imita- 
tion, and  construction  serve  as  incentives  to  the  actual  doing,  es- 
sential in  gaining  a  personal  appreciation,  of  course  crude,  of  man's 
problems  and  their  solutions. 

Change  is  necessary  to  consciousness;  it  is  when  the  child 
leaves  his  home  life  regularly  each  day  to  enter  the  larger  and  dif- 
ferent sphere  of  the  school,  that  he  gains  his  first  clearly  conscious 
conception  of  home  relations  and  conditions.  These  are  made 
evident  and  impressed  through  much  of  his  work  in  the  kinder- 
garten. In  the  primary  grades  he  is  ready  for  the  beginning  of 
a  unified  achievement  along  geographical  lines,  gaining  in  the  first 
two  years,  increasingly  definite  conceptions  of  certain  type  forms 
of  shelter,  sources  of  supply  of  food  and  clothing,  means  of  trans- 
portation, and  of  typical,  concrete,  natural  objects  and  phenomena, 
which  can  appeal  to  him  at  this  stage  of  his  development.  In  the 
third  year,  he  continues  thru  the  study  of  distant  family  groups, 
that  which  helps  him  to  interpret  his  later  study  of  the  world. 

I.     NATURAL  ENVIRONMENT 

FIRST  GRADE 
September 

a.  The  sun:  location  at  different  hours  (continuing  in  obser- 
vation and  comparison  of  hours  and  position  thruout  the  year) ; 
noting  shadow  of  child  at  different  hours  as  to  length  and  position ; 
telling  time  (sun  dials) ;  horizon ;  points  of  compass ;  effects  on  chil- 
dren and  other  organic  and  inorganic  life,  heating:  coloring,  growth, 
killing  of  germs.  b.     Great  dipper  and    north    star:    direc- 

tion;  change  of  position ;  telling  time;  compass.  c.     Fall 

flowers:  color;  size;  form;  odor;  habitat. 


GEOGRAPHY 


October 

a.  Fire:  need,  ways  of  starting,  uses,  rising  currents,  winds. 

b.  Birds:  latest  departure  of  summer  birds;  outlook  for  win- 
ter birds,  c.  Leaves:  color,  form,  time  of  dropping  com- 
pared with  other  trees. 

November 

a.     Moisture:  clouds,  rain,  fog,  dew,  steam  (power),  evapora- 
tion,  condensation.  b.     Temperature:  effect  upon    plants 
and  animals;  means  of  protection;  thermometer. 
December  (Time  given  to  preparation  for  Christmas). 
January 

Freezing :  crystalization   (water,  mineral) ;  effects  of  freezing 
upon  water,  fruit,  vegetables,  soil;  use  of  cellar,  of  refrigerator. 
February  (Time  given  to  celebration  of  its  birthdays  of  great  men.) 
March 

a.  Soil:  kinds,  use  to  plants,  effect  of  animals  that  burrow, 
clay  products.  b.     Seeds:  shape,  color,  contents,   planting 

in  glasses  of  water  and  in  pots  of  earth. 
April 

a.     Birds  b.     Goldfish  c.     Flowers 

Noticeable  characteristics  in  appearance  and  habits. 
May  and  June 

School  or  market  garden:    food  plants  and  seeds,   effects  of 
warmth  and  moisture  on  growth,  continuing  March  work. 
General 

Year's  history  of  certain  trees,  and  butterflies. 

SECOND  GRADE 
September 

Report  on  growth  of  plants  of  previous  spring  (visiting  school 
garden),  harvesting  of  garden  produce  and  fruit;  canning,  drying, 
and  storing. 
October 

a.  Life  histories  of  the  cat  and  dog.     Home  life  of  the  squirrel. 

b.  Planting  bulbs. 
November 

TIaV>its,  care,  and  value  to  man  of  horse,  cow,  and  sheep. 
December     (Time  given  to  Christmas  preparations.) 


38  GEOGRAPHY 


January 

Rocks:  sandstone:  origin;  limestone  fossils  and  story;  quarry- 
ing, use. 
February 

Coal:  uses,  kinds,  mining,  storage,  transportation. 
March 

Metals:   copper,   lead,    zinc,   iron,    tin —  characteristics,   uses, 
sorting,  mining,  preparing  for  use. 
April 

a.  Birds:  return,  where  during  winter,  habits,  food,  effect  on 
crops,  use;  domestic  fowls.  b.     Aquarium  studies:  crayfish, 

fish,  frog. 

May  and  June 

a.  Planting  cotton,  flax,  tomatoes,  and  corn,  in  breakable 
boxes  in  soil  that  will  not  cake ;  later  transplanting  to  garden. 

b.  Wild  spring  flowers.  c.  Fruit  trees:  flowers,  leaf, 
fruit,  enemies. 

General 

a.  Year's  history  of  certain  trees  and  insects. 

b.  Keeping  weather  record  thruout  year. 

II.     ARTIFICIAL  ENVIRONMENT 

FIRST  GRADE 
B  Class 

A.  Shelter,  food  and  clothing,  as  found  in  a  typical  house  in 
the  child's  neighborhood,  with  constant  reference  to  the  child's 
own  home. 

1.  Value:  a.  Protection  from  weather.  b.  Protection 
from  society.  c.  Providing  convenience  for  the  different 
activities  of  home  life. 

2.  Appearance  and  location:  a.  Material.  b. 
Color.  c.  Size.  d.  Site:  yard,  neighbor- 
hood, relation  to  school,  stores,  neighbors,  country;  con- 
veniences  in  transportation,  street  cars,  delivery  wagons,  etc. 

3.  Divisions. 

a.  Living  room:  1.  Use;  physical  comfort,  social 
pleasure,  reading,    sewing,   etc.  2.     Furnishing;    wall 

paper,    curtains,    rug,    chairs,  couch,  table,    book    case,    fire 


GEOGRAPHY  39 


place,  etc.  (Spinning  and  weaving  are  done  here.) 
3.  Associated  lessons;  care  of  room,  courtesy  to  others  enjoy- 
ing room,  charm  of  story  hour  before  the  fire,  etc. 

b.  Bedroom:  1.  Use.  2.  Furnishing.  3. 
Associated  lessons;  care  of  room,  air  at  night,  sunning, 
airing  and  making  of  bed;  sleeping  alone,  etc.;  care  of  day 
clothing  at  night. 

c.  Bathroom:  1.  Use.  2.  Furnishing.  3.  Associated 
lessons;    care  of  hair,  teeth,  nails;     bathing,  etc. 

d.  Dining  room:  1.  Use.  2.  Furnishing.  3.  Asso- 
ciated lessons;  setting  the  table,  serving,  and  courtesy  at  table. 

e.  Kitchen:  1.  Use.  2.  Furnishing.  3.  Associated 
lessons;  cleanliness,  value  of  boilingwater  for  purifying,  use 
of  refrigerator. 

f.  Pantry  or  Basement:  1.  Use.  2.  Furnishing. 
3.  Associated  lessons;  need  of  protection  from  cold  for  cer- 
tain foods,  system  in  arrangement. 

Class 
B.     Direct  sources  of  supply  for  the  home. 

1.  Drygoods  store. 

a.  Stock:  (1)  Kinds:  (a)  Cotton  (b)  Linen 
(c)  Woolen  (d)  Silk  (e)  Ribbons,  laces,  embroideries,  col- 
lars, gloves,  etc.  (f)  Notions.  (2)  Sources  of  supply:  Fac- 
tories. (3)  Care:  (a)  For  inspection,  (b)  For  cleanhness. 
(c)  For  protection  from  moths,  b.  Conveniences:  (1)  Count- 
ers    (2)  Cash  registers,  etc. 

2.  Meat  market:     treated  similarly. 

3.  Grocery  store:  a.  Stock:  (1)  Kinds:  (a)  Vege- 
tables,    (b)  Fruits,     (c)  Dairy  products,     (d)  Cereal  products 

(2)  Sources  of  supply :     (a)  Farm,     (b)   Factory,  etc. 

SECOND  GRADE 

A.  Local  sources  of  supply  for  the  stores 

1.  Farm:     a.    Products:       (1)  Cereals      (2)  Vegetables 

(3)  Fruit  (4)  Live  stock  (5)  Dairy  products  b  Conveni- 
ences:    (1)  Buildings     (2)  Machinery 

2.  Factories:  a.  Finished  product  b.  Raw  material 
c.    Process  of  converting  raw  material  into  finished  product. 

B.  Vehicles  used  in   transportation  between   farm,  factory, 
store,  and  home 


40  GEOGRAPHY 

Method  for  all  the  primary  work: 

1.  Recalling  child's  experiences  through  questioning. 

2.  Making    excursion.  3.     Reproducing    in    clay,    sand, 
pasteboard,  wood,  etc.  4.     Dramatization. 

References 

Elementary  Geographies,  King,  Tarr,  McMurry,  Dodge;  Com- 
mon Minerals  and  Rocks,  Crosby;  Systematic  Science  Teaching, 
Howe;  Special  Method  in  Elementary  Science,  McMurry  (notebibh- 
ography). 

THIRD  GRADE 
(First  World  Spiral) 

The  work  pursued  up  to  this  point  should  have  furnished  the 
child  with  a  stock  of  definite  ideas  regarding  his  own  environment. 
Physical  features,  climatic  conditions,  the  materials  used  for  food, 
clothing,  fuel,  and  constructing  buildings  have  all  been  studied 
at  first  hand,  while  ideas  regarding  direction  and  distance,  the  or- 
ganization of  home  and  community  life  have  been  developed.  The 
child  is  now  ready  to  learn  of  single  homes  beyond  his  own  horizon. 
What  method  shall  be  followed  ?  He  is  more  interested  in  another 
child  than  in  any  other  object.  Therefore  his  imagination  should 
center  about  the  activities  of  child  life.  His  imagery  is  controlled 
by  objects  immediately  about  him,  but,  w^hen  developed,  his  im- 
agination has  almost  as  great  an  impelling  power  as  objects  from 
without.  Hence,  child-life  in  other  lands  becomes  the  next  logical 
step.  This  can  probably  be  best  based  on  the  stories  of  the  "Seven 
Little  Sisters"  and  "Each  and  All"  by  Jane  Andrews. 

Tho  Seven  Little  Sisters  should  really  occupy  more  than  a  se- 
mester and  Each  and  All  can  easily  be  done  in  less  than  that  time, 
there  seems  no  better  way  of  dividing  the  year's  work  than  to  give 
each  class  one  book.  However,  when  a  class  completes  the  B  work 
in  midyear  and  remains  in  the  same  room  for  A  work,  the  use  of 
Seven  Little  Sisters  may  be  continued  in  A ;  but  when  the  B  work  is 
completed  in  June,  the  field  should  be  covered,  even  if  not  so  in- 
tensively done.  A  fall  term  A  class  should  first  review  Seven  Lit- 
tle Sisters,  and  all  A  classes  can  well  afford  to  spend  much  time  in 
supplementary  reading  upon  the  various  topics  arising  in  the  work — 
(Spyri's  Heide  has  been  much  loved  by  several  classes). 

The  work  of  each  semester  is  divided  into  about  eighty  lessons, 
thus  allowing  extra  time  for  seat  work  and  for  reviews. 


GEOGRAPHY  41 


B  Class 

Text,  Seven  Little  Sisters,  Andrews 
Prelude  and  Ball  Itself  3  to  5  days       The  Brown  Baby       5  to  8  days 
Agoonack  (needing  less  time  when   Eskimo   life   has  been  a  prom- 
inent feature  of  the  first  and  second  grade  work)     8  to  14  days 
Gemila     .        .        13  to  15  days         Jeannette      .  13  to  15  days 

Pense      .        .  9  to  12  days         Manenko         .  9  to  12  days 

Louise      .        .        13  to  15  days         Summary      ...      2  days 
A  Class 

Text,  Each  and  All,  Andrews. 
Agoonack  (many  special  topics  here  to  be  emphasized)  12  days 

Manenko      .        .        .      16  days         Gemila      .        .        .        1-4  days 

Pense  and  Lin 14  to  20  days 

(One  year  this  was  made  the  basis  of  our  closing  entertainment, 
the  children  doing  much  toward  its  dramatization  and  in  the  mak- 
ing of  costumes. ) 

The  Brown  Baby  4  to  6  days  Louise  and  Jeannette  IS  to  25  days. 
As  Miss  Andrews  does  not  definitely  locate  the  home  of  these 
two  sisters,  and  since  Minnesota  fulfils  all  the  conditions  described, 
we  choose  to  make  Louise  and  Jeannette  more  like  real  sisters — living 
in  our  own  state.  The  pupils  are  thus  introduced  to  those  features 
of  their  state  which  pertain  to  the  making  of  a  home.  They  learn 
of  the  great  pine  woods  whose  healing  breath  cures  many  an  in- 
vaUd,  of  the  limiber  furnished  by  these  woods  to  the  parents  of 
Louise  and  Jeannette,  and  of  the  processes  necessary  to  change 
these  great  trees  into  useful  articles  for  the  home.  They  learn  the 
source  of  the  flour  which  makes  the  bread  eaten  by  these  two  girls, 
and  the  clay  bed  from  which  Jeannette  makes  her  Christmas  pres- 
ents leads  naturally  to  a  talk  on  the  great  Pipestone  clay  beds, 
famed  in  Hiawatha.  These  are  a  few  of  the  many  delights  that 
the  little  Minnesota  "sisters"  indulge  in,  and  to  state  the  exact 
number  of  lessons  is  difficult. 

Summary 2  to  5  days 

References:  For  detailed  daily  outlines,  aims,  methods  of 
teaching,  and  forms  of  seat  and  home  work,  see  Gildemeister's  Sug- 
gestions for  Use  of  Seven  Little  Sisters  and  Each  and  All  (In  prepa- 
ration for  press);  Carpenter's  Geographical  Readers;  World  and 
People  Series;  and  special  references  for  each  locality  as  needed, 
e.  g.:  Arctic  books  by  du  Chaillu,  Kane,  Peary,  Nanscn;  South 
African  books  by  du  Chaillu,  Livingston,  Stanley;  William  Tell  for 
Switzerland;  etc. 


42  GEOGRAPHY 

FOURTH  GRADE  — HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

(Supplement  all  this  work  by  numerous  exercises.) 

1 .  Direction  and  Distance  —  Plat  in  sand  the  school  room 
and  campus.  Also  route  from  home  to  school.  Then  map  the 
same  sections,  studying  general  characteristics  of  simple  maps. 

2.  Study  the  home  city  and  surrounding  country  as  to 

a.  Large  Sections  (The  work  in  the  first  three  grades  has 
been  upon  the  single  home,  store,  farm,  mill,  etc.  Here  we  are 
able  to  generalize).  Study  residence  section  of  city;  manufac- 
turing section ;  business  section ;  suburbs ;  truck  farms ;  grain  and 
potato  farms. 

b.  Routes  of  Transportation  and  Locomotion  —  Trails, 
dirt  roads,  macadamized  and  paved  roads;  street  car  lines,  rail- 
road lines,  boats  on  river  (make  maps).  Study  reasons  for  lo- 
cation, direction  and  character  of  roads.  Show  how  they  aid 
in  interrelations  of  the  home  with  nearby  communities. 

c.  Other  Public  Utilities  —  Telephone  lines,  electric  light, 
sewer,  gas,  etc. — who  pays  for  them;  need;  arrangement;  study 
the  same  for  public  buildings,  fire  and  police  department, 
health  department,  parks,  play  grounds. 

d.  Some  of  the  problems  of  food  and  shelter  as  illus- 
trated in  the  home  products  and  industries. 

(1)  Garden  products  (Have  school  garden  where  chil- 
dren raise  vegetables  and  flowers ;  and  see  their  relation  to 
life.  (2)     Study  farm  products,  animal  and  vege- 

table, and  note  the  interdependence  of  and  exchange  be- 
tween farm  and  city,  connecting  this  with  necessity  for 
roads  and  means  of  transportation.  (3)     River 

products,    as    fish,    clams,  etc.  (4)     Raw  material 

for  building,  as  lumber  (its  source,  method  of  production, 
etc.);    brick;    stone;  cement.  (5)     Fuel  —  Wood, 

coal,  etc. 

A  Class 

Take  up  more  definitely  the  physical  problems    and    features, 

and  study  in  a  more  intensive  way  the  typical  occupations  of  the 

vicinity. 

1.     The  Land  Surface,      (a)   Study  slopes  wherever  they  may 

be  found  (in  gutters,  in  gullies,  from  the  bluffs  to  the  river,      (b)  Ir- 


GEOGRAPHY  43 


regularities    of  surface — hills,  plains,  valleys  —  location  of  city  and 
of  school  with  reference  to  these  as  detennining  features. 

2.  Soils  —  Caused  by  the  weathering  and  grinding  of  rocks; 
necessity  to  all  plant  and  animal  life;  different  kinds  of  soils  and  their 
adaptability  to  various  uses  (Illustrate  all  of  this  so  far  as  possible 
by  experiments  and  illustration.  Test  and  learn  to  recognize  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  rock  from  which  different  soils  are  made). 

3.  Water — (a)  The  various  forms  in  which  it  appears  on  top 
of  the  land.  Gutter  streams  and  rills;  brooks;  the  great  home 
river  —  Where  does  it  come  from,  where  does  it  go,  its  size,  its  im- 
portance in  commerce,  for  pleasure,  for  support  of  the  people 
thru  food  supplied;  its  islands,  bays,  peninsulas,  and  other  com- 
mon geographical  forms;  its  swamps  and  windings;  the  lake  —  area, 
depth,  origin,  importance,  (b)  Underground  water  —  wells,  springs, 
etc.  (c)  Work  of  water  —  the  general  problem  of  erosion,  sedi- 
ment in  streams,  how  it  gets  there,  what  becomes  of  it,  what  are  its 
effects  (good  and  bad),  how  does  it  effect  drinking  water,  how  ero- 
sion has  carved  the  valleys  and  slopes,  and  laid  down  flood  plain; 
variation  in  erosion  according  to  steepness  of  slope,  filling  and  drain- 
ing of  lakes  (illustrate  by  sloughs). 

4.  The  Air  —  Experiments  to  prove  the  presence  of  air;  its 
use;  forms  of  water  in  the  air; — rain,  dew,  fog,  clouds,  snow,  ice; 
evaporation  and  the  dewpoint. 

5.  The  Weather  —  Definite  series  of  observations  during  one 
month.  Summarize  observations  in  simple  rules.  Note  direction 
and  velocity  of  winds.  Construct  weather  vane;  record  precipita- 
tion; record  kinds  of  days  as  to  temperature,  storms,  etc. 

6.  Intensive  work  on  occupations.  Show  need  for  division  of 
labor.  Make  chart  of  principal  local  occupations.  Find  how  many 
of  these  are  represented  by  parents  of  class.  Study  and  illustrate 
the  occupations  as  to  character  and  result. 

7.  More  detailed  work  on  distance,  direction,  and  maps. 

FIFTH  GRADE 

(Second  World  Spiral  —  Descriptive,  culminating  in  simple  causal 
principles  —  proceeding  from  consequence  to  cause.) 

Having  become  acquainted  with  child  life  in  various  lands, 
and  having  studied  home  life  intensively,  the  work  is  now  to  de- 


44  GEOGRAPHY 

velop  a  picture  of  the  world  as  a  whole.  Do  this  by  moving  out 
radially  into  distant  regions  through  the  agency  of  imported  food 
or  other  products  with  which  the  child  comes  in  contact.  Make 
long  leaps  into  distant  regions  (say  to  Alaska  in  search  of  the 
possible  source  of  gold  in  a  child's  pin) ;  then  make  a  type  study  of 
that  region  on  the  basis  of  the  product  chosen,  and  work  back  to 
the  proper  home  connection  by  natural  transportation  routes,  filling 
in  on  the  return  trip  the  large  features  of  the  lands  skipped  over 
on  the  outward  trip.  Select  products  which  will  lead  north  and 
then  south  from  home,  gradually  building  up  the  heat  belts. 

Have  in  mind  continually  that  the  final  consideration  here  is  to 
build  up  an  idea  of  the  simpler  causal  controls  which  have  made 
the  given  region  what  it  is.  But  do  not  give  these  at  first.  Deal 
descriptively  with  the  consequence  in  the  type  study  and  gradually 
suggest  the  reason  for  the  conditions  found.  These  reasons  will 
finally  resolve  themselves  in  certain  elementary  principles  which 
the  child  is  afterward  to  amplify  and  apply  in  the  next  great  spiral 
(sixth  and  seventh  years)  which  proceeds  from  cause  to  consequence. 
B  Class 

Western  Hemisphere. 
A  Class 

Eastern  Hemisphere,  and  summary  of  principles. 

Also  add  some  work  on  shape  and  size  and  grand  divisions  of 
the  earth.  Show  how  this  great  ball  w^hich  has  an  outside  covering 
of  gases  (called  air)  is  not  standing  still,  but  is  spinning  away  in  the 
sunshine  like  a  big  top,  and  is  moving  rapidly  along  a  path  which 
leads  it  entirely  around  the  sun  every  year.  Extend  the  knowledge 
of  surface  features;  develop  shape,  referring  to  old  ideas,  and  giv- 
ing proofs  of  present  beliefs ;  expand  idea  of  size  and  relation  to  sun ; 
also  deal  more  specifically  with  motions.  Observe  and  record  di- 
rection of  sun  at  each  hour  of  a  certain  day,  also  change  in  direction 
of  shadow  of  post.  Make  sun  dial.  Record  noon  length  of  shadow 
of  post  on  certain  day  of  each  week  for  semester.  Spin  a  spotted 
ball  to  develop  idea  of  axis,  equator.  With  mounted  globe  and 
bright  light  (bicycle  lamp)  develop  idea  of  day  and  night  and  of 
yearly  motion.  Recall  seasons.  Color  a  small  globe  to  show  heat 
and  Hfe  belts ;  also  show  this  relationship  by  pictures  of  plants  and 
dwellings  in  these  belts. 


GEOGRAPHY  45 


Finally  (1)  let  the  child  see  the  earth  as  a  sphere  of  rock,  cool 
without,  but  heated  within,  and  so  nearly  covered  by  a  layer  of 
water  called  the  ocean,  that  only  one  fourth  of  its  surface  rises  as 
land.  (2)  Show  this  land  area  as  so  irregular  that  it  appears  to  be 
in  nearly  separate  parts  called  continents,  which  divide  the  water 
into  separate  oceans.  (3)  Leave  the  child  with  a  collected  series 
of  elementary  principles  which  explain  life  conditions  as  a  necessary 
consequence  of  these  physical  conditions. 

Note  —  Do  plenty  of  definite  map  reading  in  this  grade.  Also 
some  free  hand  map  sketching,  and  drill  enough  on  location  to  fix 
the  main  continental  features  (oceans,  continents,  great  divides  and 
slopes,  and  a  few  important  rivers  and  cities). 

SIXTH  GRADE 

(Beginning  Third  World  Spiral.) 
B  Class 

The  study  of  the  geography  of  the  eastern  hemisphere,  as  seen 
from  the  casual  standpoint,  is  the  work  of  this  grade. 

The  beginning  can  be  made  by  a  review  and  application  of  the 
following  topics:  Mathematical  geography  —  form  of  the  earth, 
proofs;  size  of  the  earth,  proofs;  rotation,  proofs  and  effects;  rev- 
olution, proofs  and  effects;  latitude;  longitude.  All  these  are 
to  be  illustrated  by  apparatus. 

Atmospheric  circulation  —  location,  causes,  and  names  of 
planetary  wind  belts;  conditions  necessary  to  produce  rainfall; 
causes  operating  in  each  belt,  such  as  doldrums,  low  pressure  areas, 
intercepting  highlands,  etc. 

Ocean  currents  —  causes  and  effects. 

Vegetation  zones  —  (See  Herbertson's  "Man  and  His  Work," 
and  map  of  hfe  zones  in  Longman's  Atlas.) 

After  a  brief  study  (six  weeks)  of  the  above  topics,  apply  the 
principles  learned  to  the  eastern  hemisphere,  beginning  with  the 
simplest  unit,  which  is  AustraUa.  Study  from  maps  physical 
features  and  coast  Une,  wind  belts  affecting  it,  distribution  of  tem- 
perature and  rainfall,  drainage.  From  this  study  infer  the  plant, 
animal  and  mineral  products,  chief  centers  of  commerce  and  trans- 
portation routes;  then  verify  by  text  and  reference.  Follow  the 
same  plan  with  Africa,  emphasizing  the  chief  products  of  the  con- 


46  GEOGRAPHY 

tinent.     Use  the  same  method  for  the  study  of  each  of  the  three 
important  countries  of  Asia. 

OUTLINE 

1.  Austraha        .......     2  weeks. 

Continental  study.  Topical  studies:  Sheep  raising,  gold 
mining. 

2.  Africa       .......  4  weeks. 

Continental  study.  Topical  studies;  Ivory,  oil  nuts,  ostrich 
farming,  dates,  esparto,  Nile  valley  products.  Cape-to- 
Cairo  railway. 

3.  Countries  in  Asia       .....  6  weeks. 

India  —  wheat.     China — tea.     Japan — silk. 

Text:     Tarr  and  McMurry. 

Supplementary:     Dodge,  Advanced  Geography;  Carpenter,  Ge- 
ographical Readers;    Herbertson,  Man  and  His  Work. 
A  Class 

Eurasia  from  the  causal  standpoint. 

Study  the  land  mass  in  a  broad  way,  following  the  outline 
given  under  the  study  of  Australia.  After  two  weeks  of  general 
work,  begin  the  stud}^  of  special  areas  of  Europe,  starting  with  the 
simplest  forms,  such  as  Spain  or  the  Scandinavian  peninsula,  and 
culminating  in  the  British  Isles  on  account  of  the  vastness  and  com- 
plexity of  the  commercial  enterprises  of  the  British  Empire. 

Study  each  country  by  the  method  given  for  the  study  of  Aus- 
tralia, and  continually  relate  its  commercial  activit}^  to  that  of  our 
own  country. 

The  sand  table  should  be  used  continuously.  If  possible, 
model  a  country  the  way  it  would  look  if  weathering  and  erosion 
had  never  affected  it.  Then  by  a  fine  spra}^  of  water  reduce  the 
topography  to  the  present  form.  Mill's  International  Geography 
will  give  the  needed  information  about  the  origin  of  each  country. 

OUTLINE 

1 .  Eurasia  —  general  study  ....  2  weeks 

2.  Europe 14  weeks 

Special  topics  to  be  emphasized  in  each  country. 

a.     Spain  and  Portugal:         Wheat,       olives.  Mining 

of  coal,  iron,  mercury.         People. 


GEOGRAPHY  47 


b.  Italy  and  Greece:  Historic     places.  Wheat, 

silk,  fiiiits. 

c.  Russia:  Soil  and  climate  belts,  wheat.  Manu- 
facturing, mining.         Possessions  in  Asia. 

d.  Austria  and  Hungary:  Mining,  wheat,  herds. 

e.  Germany  and  Netherlands:  Mining  of  coal,  iron, 
zinc,  salt,  potash  compounds.  Manufacturing,  transporta- 
tion.        People.     Rhine  valley. 

f.  Fiance:  Wheat,  grapes,  silk,  chinaware.  Paris 
and  its  manufactures. 

g.  British  Isles:  Wheat,  flax.  Country  estates. 
Manufactures.  Cotton,  iron,  steel,  ship  building.  Manufact- 
uring centers:         Where?     What?     Why? 

3.     Comparative  review  of  continents       ...  4  weeks 

Text:     Same  as  B  class. 

SEVENTH  GRADE 
(Completion  of  Third  Worid  Spiral) 
The  work  of  the  seventh  grade  is  devoted  to  the  study  of  causal 
geography  in  connection  with  the  western  hemisphere.     The  sug- 
gestions for  continental  study  given  in  the  preface  to  sixth  grade, 
will  be  followed  in  the  study  of  North  and  South  America. 
B  Class 

1 .  North  America  as  a  whole. 

2.  United  States  by  groups,  beginning  with  New  England, 
since  the  Atlantic  coast  is  the  region  of  early  English  colonies,  the 
subject  of  study  in  the  history  work  of  this  class.  In  connection 
with  the  northern  group  of  states  an  intensive  study  of  our  own 
state  will  be  made. 

A  Class 

1.  North  America  continued  in  the  study  of  Canada,  Mex- 
ico, Central  America  and  the  W^cst  Indies. 

2.  South  America  as  a  whole. 

3.  States  of  South  America  in  four  groups 

a.  Amazon  Valley  and  Eastern  Highlands. 

b.  Orinoco  Valley  and  Northeastern  Highlands. 

c.  La  Platte  Valley  and  Southern  Plains. 

d.  Andean  Highlands. 

Texts:  McMurry,  Dodge,  and  Adams  (Elementary  Commer- 
cial Geography). 


48  HISTORY 


HISTORY 

I.     INTRDOUCTION 

If  this  subject  is  to  be  made  to  yield  all  the  value  it  is  capa- 
ble of  yielding,  its  possibilities  in  various  directions  must  be  com- 
prehended by  the  teacher.  The  aim  as  well  as  the  method  must 
differ  with  the  age  and  the  mental  development  of  the  pupils.  At 
all  stages,  however,  there  will  be  a  mingling  of  purposes:  The 
stimulation  of  the  imagination ;  the  building  up  of  moral  standards ; 
the  stimulation  of  social  habits;  the  establishment  of  the  proper 
attitude  toward  the  state;  and  the  development  of  intellectual 
power.  Naturally  the  emphasis  upon  these  purposes  will  vary 
constantly. 

Even  if  our  scheme  of  education  were  purely  individualistic, 
i.  e.,  looked  only  to  the  development  of  those  powers  of  the  child 
useful  for  promoting  his  personal  profit  or  for  the  enlargement  of 
his  capacity  for  personal  enjoyment,  the  subject  ought  to  be  in  a 
course  of  study.  It  contributes  to  the  development  of  mental 
qualities  useful  to  the  individual  as  such  in  every  walk  of  life — 
to  the  development  e.  g.  of  the  memory,  of  the  power  of  discrim- 
ination, and  of  judgment.  It  is  a  culture  subject;  that  is  it  takes 
the  pupil  out  of  his  immediate  surroundings,  broadens  his  horizon, 
enlarges  his  experience  of  hiunan  life,  and  helps  him  to  a  better 
appreciation  of  the  meaning  of  the  every  day  facts  of  his  own 
life.  "The  sttident,"  says  Macaulay,  "like  the  tourist  is  trans- 
ported into  a  new  state  of  society.  He  sees  new  fashions.  He 
sees  new  modes  of  expression.  His  mind  is  enlarged  by  the  widen- 
ing diversity  of  laws,  of  morals,  of  manners."  History  opens  a 
door  to  the  enjoyment  of  literature  since  a  knowledge  of  histori- 
cal facts  is  necessary  to  an  understanding  of  constantly  recurring 
allusions  in  literature.  Here  perhaps  lies  the  justification  for 
presenting   many    of   the   incidents   made    the   subject   of   study. 


HISTORY  49 

History  must,  moreover,  be  looked  upon  as  a  preparation  for 
other  studies  such  as  political  economy,  civil  government  and 
other  subjects  which  people  may  wish  to  study  for  the  human 
interest  they  contain  and  the  intellectual  enjoyment  they  afford. 

But  our  scheme  of  education  is  not  purely  individualistic;  it 
has  or  should  have  a  distinct  social  bearing.  The  subject  should, 
therefore,  supply  knowledge,  give  opportunity  for  practice  in  or- 
ganization, and  produce  an  attitude  of  mind  and  heart  useful  to 
the  individual  not  merely  because  he  is  a  human  being  but  be- 
cause he  is  a  member  of  society,  a  citizen  of  a  republican  state. 
History  is  properly  called  one  of  the  "citizenship"  subjects,  be- 
cause while  knowledge  of  it  may  be  regarded  as  a  personal  acconjp- 
lishment,  may  open  avenues  to  a  larger  Hfe,  and  may  give  to 
those  who  study  it  an  added  power  to  deal  with  their  private 
concerns,  it  has  a  special  value  in  that  the  training  it  yields  is 
just  the  kind  needed  by  the  citizen  in  performing  his  public  duties. 
In  dealing  with  public  questions  a  citizen  should  have  the  power 
and  habit  of  constructing  into  a  whole,  information  gathered  from 
various  sources;  of  carefully  discriminating  between  good  and  bad 
evidence;  of  making  judgments  where  the  evidence  is  sometimes 
incomplete  and  often  conflicting;  of  following  an  argument  from 
point  to  point  and  detecting  its  fallacies;  and  he  should  be  able  to 
approach  such  a  study  with  perfect  candor  and  fair-mindedness. 
For  developing  these  qualities  history  has  unbounded  opportu- 
nities. No  one  lesson  will  oflfer  an  opportunity  for  training  in 
all  these  respects,  but  on  the  other  hand  no  lesson  should  ever 
pass  without  an  attempt  being  made  to  cultivate  some  of  these 
qualities. 

The  study  of  history  should  result  in  something  more  than 
an  accumulation  of  facts,  in  something  more,  even,  than  intellect- 
ual training.  From  it  should  come  a  strengthening  of  the  moral 
fiber,  and  a  growth  of  patriotic  purpose. 

The  moral  influence  of  historical  characters,  as  has  often  been 
pointed  out,  is  frequently  greater  than  that  of  the  people  whom 
children  meet  from  day  to  day.  The  work  of  the  lower  grades, 
in  building  up  right  standards  of  conduct  when  deaUng  with  either 
fictitious  or  historical  characters,  should  be  consciously  continued 
by  the  teacher  in  the  higher  grades.  This  is  not  best  done  by 
"moralizing"  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.     His  effort  should  be  to 


50  HISTORY 

make  the  stories  carry  their  own  moral.  Usually  this  will  be  the 
most  effective  way  of  conveying  a  moral  lesson.  In  the  lower 
grades  the  qualities  impressed  as  worthy  of  honor  are  personal 
qualities;  heroism,  devotion  to  one's  fellows,  unselfishness  in  ren- 
dering service,  the  effects  of  which  can  be  seen  at  once.  In  the 
higher  grades,  while  the  simpler  personal  qualities  mentioned  will 
continue  to  be  impressed  upon  the  pupils,  more  complex  civic 
qualities,  the  value  of  which  is  not  so  apparent,  should  be  brought 
before  the  pupils.  Such  examples  as  the  persistence  of  Colum- 
bus in  the  face  of  neglect  and  contumely;  the  aspiration  of  Ral- 
eigh and  other  Englishmen  to  enlarge  the  realm  of  Britain;  of  the 
French  voyageurs  to  make  a  "New  France";  of  the  Spaniards  to 
make  a  "New  Spain;"  the  self-denial  and  public  spirit  which  lay 
back  of  all  our  wars,  especially  notable  in  the  Revolution  and  the 
Civil  War;  the  moral  strength  of  Washington,  John  Quincy  Adams, 
and  others  in  undergoing  the  severest  censure  rather  than  yield  in 
w^hat  they  felt  to  be  for  the  public  good;  the  honorable  position 
taken  by  these  two  presidents  in  regard  to  the  civil  service;  the 
moral  courage  which  led  Clay  to  prefer  to  be  right  rather  than  to 
be  president ;  the  noble  spirit  of  concession  which  led  to  the  settle- 
ment of  the  crisis  of  1876, — these  and  a  thousand  other  incidents 
in  our  history  show  what  is  worthy  civic  conduct  and  should 
rouse  the  admiration  of  pupils  and  furnish  them  an  inspiration 
to  emulate  such  conduct  in  their  own  lives. 

If  the  story  of  the  country  is  well  told,  it  cannot  fail  to  in- 
spire a  love  for  those  who  have  given  it  its  higher  character,  con- 
fidence in  its  principles,  and  a  determination  to  preserve  and  pro- 
mote what  is  good  and  eradicate  what  is  evil  in  our  social  and 
political  life.  This  is  patriotism.  Do  not  let  pupils  suppose  that 
patriotism  consists  in  hating  those  with  whom  we  have  been  at 
war,  or  in  upholding  all  that  the  government  has  done,  or  in  join- 
ing the  army  to  fight  the  country's  battles,  though  that  is  one 
way  of  showing  patriotism.  They  should  learn  that  the  nation's 
greatest  enemies  are  at  home,  in  the  persons  of  law-breakers  of 
all  kinds;  of  those  who  cheat  the  government;  who  use  public  of- 
fice for  personal  ends;  who  win  their  way  by  corrupting  the  ballot, 
legislatures,  and  the  Hke.  They  should  learn  that  the  sort  of 
patriotism  needed  is  that  which  demands  of  them  an  intelligent 
interest  in  public  affairs,  local,  state  and  national;  which  demands 


HISTORY  51 

of  them  considerable  self-sacrifice  in  perfonning  the  duties  of  citi- 
zenship; which  will  require  them,  whether  it  is  agreeable  or  not, 
to  condemn  in  friends  and  enemies  alike  all  that  tends  to  degrade 
private  and  public  life  or  work  to  the  injury  of  the  Great  Republic. 

The  history  work  falls  into  two  periods.  During  the  first 
period,  covering  the  first  five  grades,  the  story,  in  which  the  life  of 
the  individual  is  the  center  of  interest  forms  the  material  for  study. 
In  the  earlier  years  the  story  is  of  chief  value  as  a  [means  of  lan- 
guage drill  or  for  the  development  of  literary  appreciation;  but  in 
the  fourth  and  fifth  grades  it  supplies  material  more  and  more 
useful  for  the  real  history  study  of  the  later  grades.  This  real 
history  work  begins  with  the  sixth  grade  when  the  center  of  in- 
terest shifts  from  the  life  of  the  individual  to  that  of  the  nation. 

The  course  of  study  is  based  upon  the  belief  that  the  most 
thoro  work  should  be  done  upon  the  history  of  our  own  country. 
The  history  of  the  United  States  is  therefore  placed  at  the  end 
of  the  course,  where  the  children,  many  of  whom  will  never  have 
an  opportunity  to  study  the  subject  in  the  schools  again,  will 
have  the  advantage  of  maturity  and  previous  study  in  approach- 
ing the  history  of  their  own  country.  The  subject  runs  thru  the 
seventh  and  eighth  years.  This  is  preceded  by  a  year's  work  in 
the  sixth  grade  on  the  outlines  of  English  History  and  this,  in 
the  fifth  year,  with  the  story  of  the  Greek  and  Romans.  This 
arrangement  has  the  advantage  of  preparing  the  way  for  a  more 
understanding  study  of  United  States  history.  It  enlarges  the 
child's  view  of  the  great  field  of  human  life  with  which  history 
deals;  it  acquaints  him  with  institutions  other  than  those  with 
which  he  is  surrounded  and  thus  gives  him  a  basis  of  comparison; 
it  gives  experience  in  following  in  outline  great  movements  in  the 
life  of  a  people ;  and  gives  him  a  truer  view  of  the  place  of  his  own 
country  in  history.  This  arrangement  of  the  course  has  a  value 
independent  of  the  use  made  of  European  history  in  the  later 
part  of  the  course.  It  acquaints  him  with  something  of  the  life 
of  the  three  peoples  who  have  made  the  greatest  contributions 
to  the  world's  progress;  it  furnishes  in  the  lives  of  the  characters 
studied  nourishing  ideals  of  private  and  public  conduct;  and  it 
broadens  the  child's  horizon. 

The  purpose  and  character  of  the  work  naturally  vary  with 
the  periods  named,  and  even  with  the  year. 


52  HISTORY 

The  method  also  must  vary,  but  it  must  always  hold  in  mind 
two  facts  (1)  That  children  get  little  out  of  generalizations,  and 
that  therefore  the  past  must  be  constantly  made  real  by  the  pre- 
sentation of  much  detail.  This  detail  must  be  such  as  will  natur- 
ally connect  with  elements  of  similarity  or  contrast  in  the  child's 
own  experience;  it  must  make  the  past  vivid  and  full  of  life-content. 
To  say  that  "trade  was  interfered  with"  is  not  enough.  The  child 
wishes  to  know  names  of  ports,  of  specific  ships,  of  actual  cargoes 
and  voyages,  with  names  of  captain  and  crew.  Other  means  of 
making  the  past  real  are  pictures ;  construction ;  historical  games ; 
letters  and  diaries  written  by  pupils  but  conceived  as  written  in 
past  historical  periods;  details  from  life  of  common  people;  litera- 
ture. 

(2)  The  second  point  to  keep  in  mind  is  that  mere  lists  of 
facts  are  dull  and  easily  forgotten;  but  if  organized  about  a  great 
controlling  principle  they  cling  together  by  their  own  power  and 
give  a  cumulative  effect.  To  give  lists  of  Dutch,  French,  Spanish, 
and  English  colonies  with  a  few  facts  about  each  (such  as  date 
of  founding,  by  whom  founded,  kind  of  government,  etc.,)  is  un- 
interesting and  unprofitable  work.  To  study  them  all  in  their 
relation  to  the  great  problem  of  "A  Struggle  for  a  Continent," 
puts  life  and  worth  into  the  situation. 

In  the  first  period  (Grades  1  to  5)  the  pupils'  work  will  be 
largely  reproductive,  but,  even  here,  much  should  be  done  in  de- 
veloping the  history-sense  by  requiring  consecutiveness  of  thought 
and  expression,  and  completeness  and  balance  in  the  story. 

These  should  be  required  also  in  the  later  period,  and,  in  ad- 
dition, some  constructive  work  should  be  insisted  upon,  as  in 
drawing  inferences,  making  modest  judgments,  and  in  weaving 
into  one  account  the  material  gathered  from  various  sources. 

References: — Special  Method  in  History,  McMurry;  Teach- 
ers College  Record,  May,  1904,  Suzzalo;  ibid  Marker;  Studies  in 
Historical  Method,  Barnes,  pp.  75-105;  Teaching  of  History  and 
Civics,  Bourne;  Method  in  History,  Mace;  Report  of  the  Committee 
of  Eight ;  American  History  and  Its  Geographic  Conditions,  Semple ; 
Teachers  College  Record,  November,  1908 — Johnson's  Adaptation 
of  History  to  the  Grades. 


HISTORY  53 

II.     SUBJECT-MATTER 

FIRST,  SECOND  AND  THIRD   (GRADES 

(introductory  to  history) 

A  basis  for  history,  which  as  a  separate  study  is  not  taken 
up  until  the  fourth  grade,  is  gained  in  the  primary  grades  thru 
the  tales,  myths,  stories  of  heroes,  patriotic  poems  and  songs 
treated  in  literature,  holidays,  celebrations,  etc.  In  the  hand  work, 
also,  and  in  the  stories  of  Hiawatha  and  Agoonack,  primitive  hfe 
is  introduced.  In  the  third  grade,  we  also  study  the  food,  cloth- 
ing, houses,  family  life,  religion,  and  government  of  the  typical 
races — making  constant  reference  to  our  own  time. 

We  read  and  discuss  Robinson  Crusoe  for  a  knowledge  of 
home  life  in  its  simple  primitive  conditions,  for  Crusoe's  vague 
knowledge  of  things  and  his  lack  of  skill  make  him  childUke  in 
invention.  His  simple,  plain,  fanciful  tale  of  toil  and  hardship 
has  worth  as  well  as  fascination,  and  is  typical  of  man's  constant 
warfare  with,  and  final  conquering  of,  nature. 

At  times,  "the  method  of  handUng  this  narrative  (Robinson 
Crusoe)  before  the  class  will  be  similar  to  that  used  in  teaching  the 
fairy  tales.  A  simple  and  vivid  recital  of  facts,  with  frequent  ques- 
tions and  discussions,  so  as  to  draw  the  story  closer  to  the  child's 
own  thought  and  experience,  should  be  made  by  the  teacher. 
Much  skill  in  illustrative  device,  in  graphic  description,  in  diagram 
or  drawing,  in  the  appeal  to  the  sense  experiences  of  the  pupil,  is 
in  demand." 

The  sand-table  is  especially  valuable  here. 

References: — Seven  Little  Sisters  and  Each  and  All,  Jane 
Andrews;  other  geography  references.  Crusoe's  Island,  Ober; 
Robinson  Crusoe,  DeFoe.     The  Story  of  Ab,  Waterloo. 

Texts: — Robinson  Crusoe  by  McMurry;  The  Tree-Dwellers 
(when  not  used  in  second  grade),  Early  Cave  Men,  and  Later  Cave 
Men,  Dopp. 

FOURTH  GRADE 

While  in  this  and  the  succeeding  grades,  history  is  taken  up 
as  a  separate  subject,  it  has  a  close  connection  with  other  sub- 
jects, especially  geography,  literature  and  reading. 


54  HISTORY 

At  this  age  the  story  is  often  told  by  the  teacher  and  repro- 
duced by  the  class  both  orally  and  in  written  form.  The  dramatic, 
the  personal,  and  the  concrete  are  at  the  basis  of  the  child's  under- 
standing as  well  as  of  his  interest.  We  use  maps,  sketches,  pic- 
tures, and  comparisons  with  home  objects.  "Not  only  are  his 
(the  teacher's)  descriptions  more  animated,  picturesque,  colloquial, 
adapting  themselves  to  the  faces,  moods,  and  varied  thoughts, 
and  suggestions  of  the  pupils,  but  there  can  be  a  discussion  of 
causes  by  pupil  and  teacher,  a  weighing  of  probabilities,  a  use  of 
the  blackboard  for  graphic  drawing  or  diagram,  a  variety  of  home- 
ly illustrations,  and  appeal  to  the  children's  previous  experience 
and  reading  such  as  is  impossible  in  the  mere  memorizing  of  a 
book." 

But,    whenever   possible,    texts    are   put   into    the    children's 
hands  so  that  they  may  learn  how  to  get  facts  from  the  printed 
page,  how  to  judge  relative  values  of  points  given,  and  how  to 
organize  these  for  retelling. 
B  Class. 

Early  Colonial  days ;  pioneer  Hfe  in  any  section  of  our  land,  tho 
emphasis  is  laid  on  local  history,  selecting  material  from  stories 
of  Hennepin,  La  Salle,  Marquette  and  Joliet,  General  Sibley,  the 
Sioux  Massacre,  Minnesota  in  the  Civil  War,  and  Governor  Ramsey. 

Texts:  Stories  of  Colonial  Children,  Pratt;  Stories  of  Great 
Americans  for  Little  Americans,  Eggleston;  Pioneer  History  Stories, 
McMurry. 

References : 

1.  Material  —  Colonial  Children,  Hart  and  Hazard;  Heroes 
of  the  Middle  West,  Catherwood;  De  Soto,  Marquette,  and  La  Salle, 
Pratt;  The  Discovery  of  the  Old  Northwest,  Baldwin;  American 
Leaders  and  Heroes,  Gordy;  Concise  History  of  Minnesota,  Neill; 
The  History  of  Minnesota  and  Tales  of  the  Frontier,  Flandreau ; 
Minnesota,  Folwell;  Winona  and  its  Environs  on  the  Mississippi  in 
Ancient  and  Modern  Days,  Bunnell. 

2.  To  help  teachers  —  Value  of  Hero  Stories,  Helen  Ford 
Staples ;  How  to  Tell  Stories  to  Children,  Sara  Cone  Bryant ;  -Alice 
Morse  Earle's  books. 

A  Class 

Leif  the  Lucky  (1000),  Columbus  (1492),  Cortez  and  Monte- 
zuma (1519-21),  Chff  Dwellers,  De  Soto  (1539),  Coronado  (1540), 


HISTORY  55 


Raleigh  (1584),  John  Smith  (1607),  Henry  Hudson  (1C)09),  Wm. 
Penn  (1681),  Oglethorpe  (1733),  Boone  (1769),  Crockett,  Rob- 
ertson, Lewis  and  Clark,  George  Rogers  Clark,  Fremont  and  Car- 
son, Discovery  of  Gold  (1849). 

Texts:  Viking  Tales,  Jennie  Hall;  America's  Story,  I  and  II, 
Pratt;  Great  Americans  for  Little  Americans,  Eggleston;  Pioneer 
History  Stories,  McMurry. 

References :  The  Story  of  the  Thirteen  Colonies,  Guerber ;  Our 
Country's  Story,  Tappan;  Hero  Stories,  Tappan;  Household  History 
of  the  United  States,  Eggleston;  History  of  the  United  States, 
Fiske;  Four  American  Pioneers,  Perry  and  Beebe;Cortez  and  Mon- 
tezuma, Pratt;  Discoverers  and  Explorers, Shaw ;  B  IV,  references. 

FIFTH  GRADE 
B  Class 

I.  Story  of  Hebrews  (six  weeks):  Adam  and  Eve,  Abraham, 
Joseph,  Moses,  Naomi  and  Ruth,  Saul,  David,  Solomon, 
Daniel,  Jesus. 

References:  The  Bible;  Young  Folks'  Bible  History, 
Yonge;  Old  Stories  of  the  East,  Story  of  the^Chosen  People, 
Guerber;  Stories  of  the  Olden  Times,  Johonnot;  Moral  Instruc- 
tion of  Children,  Felix  Adler;  TelUng  Bible  Stories,  Houghton; 
Story  of  the  Jews,  Hosmer. 

II.  Story  of  the  Greeks  (12  weeks):  1.  Story  of  the  Gods;  Zeus, 
Poseidon,  Apollo,  Orpheus,  etc.  2.  The  Age  of  Heroes ; 
Trojan  War,  Ulysses,  etc.  3.  Historical  Age;  early 
Sparta  and  Athens,  Lycurgus  and  Solon,  Olympic  games, 
Persian  wars,  Pericles,  Alcibiades,  Socrates,  Alexander. 
4.  Great  things  which  Greece  did  for  the  world;  her  writers, 
architects,  artists,  orators;  etc.  In  the  study  of  the 
Greeks,  the  regularity  and  simpHcity  of  their  lives  is  em- 
phasized; also  their  love  of  the  beautiful.  Language  supple- 
ments this  work  and  hand  work  is  used  to  illustrate  many 
phases  of  Greek  life. 

Teacher's  Text:     Greek  Gods  and  Heroes,  Harding. 

References:  Story  of  the  Greeks,  Guerber;  Story  of  Odyssey 
and  Iliad,  Church;  Greeks  and  Persians,  Cox;  Ten  Great  Events, 
Johonnot;  Wonder  Book,  Hawthorne;  Old  Greek  Stories,  Baldwin; 
Plutarch's  Lives;  Age  of  Fable,  Bulfinch;  Stories  of  the  Old  World, 


56  HISTORY 

Church;  Life  of  the  Ancient  Greeks,  GuHck;  Old  Greek  Life,  Ma- 
haffy;  History  of  Greece,  Botsford. 
A  Class 

ROMAN   HISTORY 

The  purposes  of  the  course  in  Roman  history  which  is  taken 
in  this  class  are  to  cultivate  the  natural  interest  of  children  in 
heroic  men  and  brave  deeds,  to  illustrate  the  faults  and  virtues 
of  Roman  character,  to  give  familiarity  with  important  events 
and  famous  incidents,  to  leave  the  impression  that  war  is  a  brutal 
way  of  setthng  disagreements,  and  to  leave  an  impression  of  the 
Roman  "spirit  of  conquest,  the  capacity  for  organization,  for  law, 
and  for  government." 

OUTLINE 

I.  Introduction;     1.     Connect  with  Greek  History;  for  example, 

—  What  were  Romans  doing  when  Alexander  set  out  against 
Persians?  2.     Associate  with  the    geography    of   Italy 

and  Rome.  3.     Show  pictures  of  ruins  of  Rome. 

II.  Kingdom  of  Rome:  1.  Romulus,  the  founder.  2.  Numa, 
the  lawgiver.  (Give  stories,  incidents,  and  descriptions 
to  show  primitive  nature  of  Romans.) 

III.  The  Republic:  1.  Struggle  to  establish  it.  Tarquin  at- 
tempts to  become  king;  Lars  Porsena  aids  him;  brave  de- 
fense —  Horatius ;  Courageous  act  of  Mucins ;  Roman  sense  of 
justice  —  Cloelia.  2.  Division  of  people  into  two 
classes:  a.  Causes.  b.  Names  of  classes.  c.  Early 
results;  injustice  to  plebeians,  estabUshment  of  tribunes. 

3.  Continued  struggle  to  expand  power:  a.  Leaders:  Cori- 
olanus ;  the  Fabii ;  Cincinnatus;  Camillus.  4.     Written 

Laws:     a.     Need    for    them;  how  published.  b.     Re- 

sults :  their  place  in  the  education  of  boys ;  effect  on  the  con- 
dition of  the  plebeians,  effect  on  the  development  of  law. 
5.     Growth  checked — The  Gauhsh  Conquest.  6.     New 

Rome;     a.     Protected  by  Camillus.  b.    Improvements 

made.  7.     Period  of  Conquest:     a.     The  Conquest  of 

Italy.  b.     Wars  with  Carthage;  conquest  of  Sicily,  of 

Carthage,   Hannibal's    Campaign    in    detail.  c.     Con- 

quest of  other  Mediterranean  countries.  d.     The  Con- 

quest   of   Gaul;  Juhus  Caesar.  8.     New  Problems  for 


HISTORY  57 

Rome:     a.     Home  conditions  needing  reform  —  The  Gracchi. 

b.  The    Civil    Wars;      what    they    were    about,        results. 

c.  Changes  in   Roman  character,   customs ;  home  and  home 
life;  school  hfe;  dress. 

IV.     The  Empire:     1.     Establishment  of   the  Empire.         2.    The 
age    of    Augustus  Caesar:  a.    Great    Writers-    Virgil, 

Horace.  b.     The  life  of  the  people  —  in  detail. 

3.  Period  of  weakness:  a.  Misgovernment  by 
weak  rulers.  b.  Civil  war:  Causes;  results;  people 
of  all  provinces  made  citizens;  better  rulers. 

4.  Reign  of  "five  good  emperors:"  a.  Trajan, 
b.     Hadrian.  c.     Marcus  Aurelius. 

5.  Period  of  civil  strife:  a.  Results:  Empire  divided 
by  Diocletian;  strong  rule  checked  strife. 

6.  Empire  united  under  Constantine:  a.  First  Christ- 
ian emperor.  b.     Constantinople  was  built. 

7.  Downfall  of  Empire;  a.  Divided.  b.  Plun- 
dered by  barbarians. 

8.  Christianity:  a.  Christ,  the  founder:  Born  in 
Augustan  Age ;  put  to  death  by  succeeding  Roman  emperor, 
b.  Growth  of:  Favorable  conditions;  a  united  Roman  world; 
teachings  spread  by  apostles — Paul;  persecutions  by  Romans 
—  causes,  results;  Rome  accepts  Christianity;  Emperors  be- 
come Christians —  Constantine  the  Great;  Christians  increase 
rapidly  in  numbers  and  in  power. 

Text :     The  City  of  the  Seven  Hills,  Harding. 

References:  Young  Folks'  History  of  Rome,  Yonge;  Private 
Life  of  the  Romans,  Johnston;  Story  of  the  Romans,  Guerber; 
Young  Folks'  History  of  the  Roman  Empire,  Shepard;  Historical 
Reader,  Anderson;  Ancient  History,  West;  Great  Events  of  His- 
tory, Collier;  History  of  Rome,  Botsford;  Ancient  History  for  Young 
Folks,  Botsford. 

SIXTH  GRADE 

The  work  of  this  grade  is  the  outlines  of  English  history. 
More  fully  than  heretofore  the  pupil  is  able  to  connect  events  with 
causes,  to  enter  into  community  life  and  feeling,  and  to  study 
movements  as  well  as  men.  Attention  is  called  to  the  historical 
importance  of  geographical  and  climatic  conditions,  of  economic 


58  HISTORY 

changes,  of  movements  of  population,  and  the  like.  The  text- 
book very  properly  groups  the  events  narrated  mainly  about  a 
few  great  men.  But  care  has  to  be  taken  that  the  pupil  gets  more 
than  the  story  of  the  person  and  the  dramatic  side  of  the  event. 
The  significant  part  of  the  Norman  Conquest  is  found,  not  in  the 
personality  of  the  conqueror  or  in  his  battles,  but  in  the  introduc- 
tion of  new  race  elements,  and  in  the  modification  that  followed 
in  social  and  political  life.  The  "Story  of  Henry  and  Becket" 
tells,  not  merely  of  a  spectacular  quarrel,  but  gives  a  glimpse  of  a 
great  struggle  between  the  nation  and  the  church.  "The  Story 
of  Drake"  is  that  of  one  of  the  builders  of  England's  power  upon 
the  sea;  the  "Story  of  Spinning  and  Weaving"  has  an  added  inter- 
est when  the  pupil  is  made  to  see,  even  imperfectly,  that  it  is  vital- 
ly connected  with  the  story  of  the  "Great  Reform  Bill." 

It  is  easy  to  attempt  too  much  in  such  an  outline  study  as  is 
here  intended,  but  the  pupil  should  be  able  to  grasp  some  of  the 
threads  that  give  unity  to  England's  story  —  to  follow  the  progress 
of  the  English  from  a  group  of  loosely  connected  tribes  to  a  com- 
pact kingdom,  and  the  growth  of  this  kingdom  into  a  great  em- 
pire; to  get  some  idea  of  England's  contribution  to  the  world's 
welfare  in  developing  the  principle  of  representative  government 
and  in  promoting  personal  liberty  and  protecting  personal  rights; 
and  he  should  be  able  to  appreciate  the  energy  and  force  of  char- 
acter which  have  made  the  English  the  foremost  people  in  the 
world.  An  opportunity  of  fixing  the  hold  on  some  of  these  threads 
of  England's  history  is  found  in  the  review  by  bringing  together  and 
organizing  the  children's  knowledge  on  such  subjects  as  the  fol- 
lowing :  The  growth  of  EngHsh  territory ;  the  race  elements  of  the 
English  people;  how  the  kingdom  was  formed  and  became  strong; 
relations  with  other  countries,  as  Ireland  and  Scotland;  England 
and  the  Continent,  including  its  efforts  to  maintain  the  balance  of 
power;  the  growth  of  the  baron's  power;  steps  in  the  rise  of  the  com- 
mon people ;  relations  between  church  and  state ;  changes  in  indus- 
tries; industrial  reforms. 

While  the  story  of  England  has  in  it  ample  enough  means  of 
culture  to  justify  its  place  in  the  course  of  study,  it  is  also  valu- 
able as  a  preparation  for  the  study  of  United  States  history.  Its 
value  in  this  respect  lies  in  enlarging  the  historical  experiences  of 
the  pupils;  in  the  practice  given  in  following,  in  outHne,  historical 


HISTORY  59 

movements;  and  in  building  up  such  a  back  ground  for  American 
history  that  the  pupils  will  see  their  own  country  in  truer  per- 
spective. 
B  Class 

I.  Relation  of  the  geography  of  England  to  its  history.  Com- 
pare with  the  geography  of  Rome  and  Italy. 

II.  Ancient   Britain;     1.     Celtic;     a.     Tribes:      Gaels;     Britons. 

b.  Primitive  nature  of  people. 

2.     Roman :     a.  Cruel  and  tyrannical  rule.  b.  Re- 

sults   of     Roman    occupation:     roads,     fortifications,     forts. 

c.  Homes  and    life    of    the    people.  d.     Christianity 
checked  by  persecutions. 

III.  English  Conquest;  1.  Angles  and  Saxons,  Teutonic  tribes, 
conquered  Britons;  a.  Their  union  under  Egbert.  b. 
Alfred,  the  most  noteworthy  Saxon  king:  his  laws,  trans- 
lations, navy.  c.  Christianity  estabhshed — its  ef- 
ects.  d.  Effects  of  the  conquest  on  language; 
government;  sense  of  liberty.  e.  Social  and  indus- 
trial changes. 

IV.  Danish  Conquest:  1.  Brought  new  vigor  and  a  spirit  of 
independence  into  the  life  of  the  country.  2.  Danes, 
with  Angles  and  Saxons  formed  the  Anglo-Saxon  people. 

V.  Norman  Conquest;  1.  WilHam  of  Normandy  gained  throne 
of  England.  2.  Results:  a.  Introduced  a 
more  progressive  spirit.  b.  Improved  the  language, 
c.  Established  feudal  system  of  landholding.  d.  Eng- 
lish and  Norman  peoples  fused  into  English  nation, 
e.  Changed  mode  of  life.  f.  Religious  conditions; 
cathedral  building. 

VI.  Rise  of  EngUsh  Nation:  1.  Reign  of  Henry  II  (Planta- 
genet) ;  a.  Power  of  king  established  over  the  barons, 
b.  Struggle  between  Church  and  Nation  begun:  Becket, 
Constitutions  of  Clarendon.  c.  Reforms  in  adminis- 
tration of  justice;  courts  of  justice  estabhshed,  trial  by  jury. 

2.  Reign  of  Richard  I.;  a.  The  Crusades  were  center 
of  interest;  a  study  of  the  Third  Crusade.  Results  of  the 
Crusades:  new  ideas  brought  from  East,  power  of  feudal 
lords  weakened.  (For  conditions  of  society  see  Ivanhoe). 

3.  Reign  of  John    :a.  Misrule  weakened  power  of  king. 


60  HISTORY 

b.     Results:    Great  Charter   was    obtained  which  recognized 
rights  of  common    people;    strengthened    power  of    barons; 
strengthened  power  of  church. 

4.  Reign  of  Henry  HI-  a.  The  weakness  of  the  reign, 
b.  Reforms  led  by  Simon  of  Montfort.  c.  Common  peo- 
ple obtained  a  voice  in  Parliament. 

5.  Reign  of  Edward  I.:  a.  Wales  and  Scotland  .con- 
quered, b.  Parliament  became  a  representative  legislative 
body.         c.     Customs  tax  introduced. 

6.  Reign  of  Edward  II.:  a.  Scotland  regained  indepen- 
dence; Bannockburn;  Bruce,  Wallace. 

7.  Reign  of  Edward  III.:  a.  Rise  of  English  commerce; 
woolen  factories  established.  b.  Beginning  of  Hundred 
Years'  War  with  France;  united  English  people  more  firmly, 
strengthened  power  of  Parliament. 

8.  Reign  of  Richard  II. :  a.  Rebellion  of  the  peasants 
gained  more  freedom  for  the  peasants  and  laborers. 

VII.  Destruction  of  Feudalism:      1.     War  of  the  Roses — Barons 
against  barons.  a.      Reign  of  Henry  VI.  b.     Reign  of 
Edward   IV.     Printing  was  introduced  by  Caxton;    English 
language  was  unified.        c.      Reign  of  Richard  III.       End  of 
War.     Results:   power  of  lords  destroyed. 

Text:     Stories  from  English  History,  Warren,  pp.  1-165. 
A  Class 

VIII.  The  Absolute  Power  of  the  Crown. 

1.  Reign  of  Henry  VII.  (Tudor):  a.  United  factions  in 
country.  b.  Established  a  strong  government,  c.  Amer- 
ica discovered. 

2.  Reign    of    Henry   VIII.:  a.     King    ruled    absolutely. 

b.  England  severed  her  connection  with  Pope.  King  became 
head    of    Church    in    England. 

3.  Reign  of  Elizabeth;  a.  Protestant  religion  was  es- 
tablished,      b.    Great  age  of  English  literature — Shakespeare. 

c.  Trade    and     exploration    increased  —  Drake;      Raleigh. 

d.  Social  life. 

IX.  Rise  of  the  People's  Power  against  the  King's  Power. 

1.  Reign  of  James  I.;  a.  People  demand  religious  free- 
dom,    Pilgrims  settle  in  America. 

2.  Reign   of    Charles  I.:         a.     Struggle  between  king    and 


HISTORY  61 

nation.          Petition  of  Right  granted  by  king;  the  Ci\-il  wars. 

3.  The  Commomvcalth.     OHver  Cromwell. 

4.  Reign  of  Charles  II.:  a.  Restoration  of  king  as  the 
ruler.  b.  Dissatisfaction  with  ruling  power.  c.  Plague 
and  Fire  of  London,     d.     Great  hterary  workof  Milton. 

5.  Reign  of  James  II.:  a.  Revolution  .against  rule  of 
King  independent  of  Parliament  and  law. 

6.  Reign  of  William  III.  and  Mary  II.:  a.  People  gained 
political  liberty  from  absolute  rule  of  king. 

7.  Reign  of  Anne:  a.  House  of  Commons  becomes  the 
ruling  power.  b.  Duke  of  Marlborough  upheld  English 
power,     c.    Parliaments  of  Scotland  and  England    united. 

X.     Government  by  the  People. 

1.  Reign  of  George  I.:  a.  Prime  Minister  and  Cabinet  appear. 

2.  Reign  of  George  II.:  a.  Wm.  Pitt,  Earl  of  Chatham, 
an  honest  Prime  Minister.  b.  Power  of  Great  Britain  ex- 
tended: In  India  —  Clive  and  Hastings.  In  North  America: 
Growth  of  the  Colonies;     Conflict  with  the  French;      Wolfe. 

3.  Reign  of  George  III.:  a.  Ireland  united  with  Great 
Britain.  b.  The  loss  of  the  American  colonies.  c.  War 
with  France:     Pitt,  the  statesman;  Nelson  and  Wellington. 

commanders.  Results:  Increased  power  on  land  and  sea; 
peace  for  Europe;  Napoleon  in  exile.  d.  Industrial  im- 
provements: Spinning  and  w^eaving;  steam  engine  and 
locomotive,  e.  Reforms:  In  jails  —  John  Howard;  slave 
trade  —  Wm.  Wilberforce.     Slavery  in  the  colonies  abolished. 

4.  Reign  of  Wilham  IV.:  a.  Great  Reform  Bill :  Se- 
cured representation  of  people  in  Parhament. 

5.  Reign  of  Victoria  —  Democratic  Era:  a.  House  of 
Commons  became  true  representative  of  people;  the  ruling 
power  in  nation.  b.  Power  abroad  maintained;  Crimean 
War;  Indian  Mutiny  suppressed.  c.  British  colonies: 
Canada,  Australia;  South  Africa;  control  over  Egypt  and 
India.     Explorations  in  Africa,    Livingston. 

6.  Reign  of  Edward  VII. 

7.  The  British  Empire;  the  greatest  empire  in  the  world; 
how  governed;  its  elements  of  strength. 

Text:     Stories  from  Enghsh  History,  Warren,  pp.  166-462. 


62  HISTORY 

References:  Handbook  of  English  History,  Guest;  Source 
Book  in  English  History,  Kendall;  Stories  from  English  History, 
Church;  Story  of  King  Alfred,  Besant;  Child's  History  of  England, 
Dickens;  Historical  Reader,  Anderson;  England's  Story,  Tappan; 
Story  of  the  English,  Guerber;  Social  England,  Trail;  School  Atlas 
of  English  History,  Gardiner. 

SEVENTH  GRADE 

The  pupil  conies  to  the  study  of  history  in  this  grade  with  a 
considerable  fund  of  information  concerning  persons  and  events, 
and  with  a  more  or  less  definite  idea  of  the  course  of  the  nation's 
development.  In  adding  new  information  to  the  old,  the  effort 
is  not  simply  to  increase  the  number  of  detached  facts  in  the  mind 
of  the  child,  but  to  aid  him  in  appreciating  the  facts  of  a  higher 
order,  and  in  interpreting  them.  While  certain  kinds  of  infoiTna- 
tion  will  be  made  secure  only  by  frequent  drills,  care  is  taken  to 
avoid  mere  memory  work.  Appeal  is  constantly  made  to  the  pu- 
pils' understanding. 

A  few  of  the  salient  points  upon  which  emphasis  is  laid  are 
the  following:  (1)  Our  colonial  history  is  less  the  history  of  the 
United  States  than  it  is  of  Europe.  It  is,  properly  viewed  the  story 
of  the  colonial  expansion  of  various  European  countries.  From 
that  point  of  view,  the  children  watch  the  progress  of  the  Spanish, 
as  step  by  step  they  become  acquainted  with,  and  acquire  control 
of,  one  region,  the  French  of  another,  the  English  of  another  and 
so  on.  The  story  of  the  revolt  of  the  English  colonies,  which  closes 
the  year's  work,  is  not  only  the  story  of  the  way  a  new  nation  was 
brought  forth,  but  also  of  the  way  England  lost  the  choicest  of  her 
colonial  possessions.  (2)  There  were  certain  forces  at  work  in  the 
home  countries,  certain  causes  operating  to  send  forth  a  stream  of 
emigrants  to  the  new  world.  These  forces  determined  the  char- 
acter of  people  who  came  out  and  they,  in  turn,  largely  deter- 
mined the  kind  of  colony  established.  (3)  The  climatic  and  other 
physical  conditions  in  the  new  world  determined  the  course  of 
settlement,  and,  with  the  English  especially,  the  character  of  their 
institutions  in  part.  The  waterways  as  well  as  coast  indentations 
were  of  vital  importance  in  determining  where  populations  should 
settle,  and  they  were  frequently  contended  for  by  opposing  na- 


HISTORY  63 

tions.  (4)  The  European  countries  were  not  left  to  expand  at 
will  in  the  new  world.  From  the  beginning  there  was  a  conflict 
for  the  mastery  of  the  continent.  By  1763  the  outcome  of  the 
conflict  had  been  practically  settled  by  the  elimination  of  the 
Swedes,  the  Dutch  and  the  French;  but  the  end  of  the  story  has 
perhaps  not  yet  been  written.  The  latest  phases  of  the  struggle 
are  the  pushing  of  Spain  out  of  the  West  Indies,  1898,  our  acqui- 
sition of  Porto  Rico  1898,  and  the  retention  of  important  rights 
in  Cuba,  and  the  more  recent  acquisition,  1904,  of  rights  in  the 
Canal  Zone  of  Panama.  A  thread,  therefore,  running  through 
our  whole  history  is  the  progress  of  EngHsh  speaking  peoples  in 
acquiring  control  of  North  America.  Children  are  led  to  see  the 
vital,  logical  relationship  between  the  settlement  at  Jamestown, 
which  gave  the  English  their  first  permanent  foothold  on  the  con- 
tinent, and  all  later  acquisitions  of  territory.  (5)  The  character- 
istics of  social  and  industrial  hfe  in  the  dififerent  sections  of  the 
colonies  are  easily  within  the  comprehension  of  the  pupils  and  are 
given  prominence.  (6)  For  classifying  and  interpreting  facts,  it 
is  helpful  to  look  at  history  in  "periods."  The  pupils  are  helped 
to  gain  an  understanding  of  what  constitutes  a  period,  and  to  make 
such  divisions  of  the  story  of  particular  colonies,  or  groups  of  colo- 
nies as  will  enable  them  to  get  the  sense  of  movement,  of  progress, 
in  history. 
B  Class. 

Exploration  and  Colonization. 

Text: — School  History  of  the  United  States,  Mace,  pp.  1-117. 
A  Class. 

The  Struggle  for  North  America. 

The  Struggle  for  the  Rights  of  EngUshmen. 

The  Struggle  for  the  Rights  of  Man. 

Text:— School  History  of  the  United  States,  Mace,  pp.  117-198. 

References: — Stories  of  the  Great  Repubhc,  and  Stories  of 
the  Thirteen  Colonies,  Guerber;  Our  Country's  Story,  Tappan. 

EIGHTH  GRADE 
B  Class. 

The  first  half  of  the  year  begins  with  a  study  of  certain  con- 
ditions and  tendencies  in  the  colonial  period  which  have  a  special 
bearing  upon  the  governmental  problems  confronting  the  country 


64  HISTORY 

at  the  close  of  the  Revolution.  This  study  includes  a  rather  care- 
ful examination  of  government  of  two  or  three  of  the  colonies  just 
prior  to  the  revolt ,  the  relations  among  the  colonies  and  with  Eng- 
land, and  the  development  of  the  idea  of  union.  This  serves  as  a 
preparation  for  a  study  of  the  new  state  governments,  of  the 
confederation,  and  finally  of  the  federal  union.  The  development 
of  the  country  under  the  Constitution  to  the  first  election  of  Lin- 
coln, constitutes  the  main  work  of  the  half  year. 

Text: — History  of  the  United  States,  Mace,  pp.  198-337. 
A  Class. 

The  second  half  year  begins  with  a  review  of  the  events  lead- 
ing up  to  the  civil  war.  The  advance  covers  the  period  from  1860 
to  the  present  time.  Special  attention  is  given  to  the  political 
events  of  the  war,  to  the  progress  of  "reconstruction"  after  war,  and 
to  the  problems  growing  out  of  that  war,  that  still  remain  unsettled. 

What  is  said  above  concerning  the  work  of  the  seventh  grade 
is  also  applicable  here.  The  greater  maturity  of  pupils  of  this 
grade  enables  them  to  do  stronger  work  than  heretofore;  and  the 
importance  of  the  period  requires  it.  The  order  of  the  text  book 
is  in  general  followed,  but  the  matter  found  there  is  on  many  sub- 
jects insufficient  for  inquiring  pupils.  Other  texts  and  larger 
books  of  reference  are  drawn  upon,  including  some  original  mate- 
rial. Familiarity  with  the  Constitution  is  gained  by  constant  ref- 
erence to  it.  Thus  the  composition  of  Congress  and  modes  of 
election  are  best  learned  in  connection  with  the  organization  of 
the  new  government  under  the  constitution,  the  mode  of  electing 
a  president  is  best  studied  in  connection  with  those  elections  about 
which  there  is  some  peculiarity,  e.  g.  that  of  1800-1801,  or  1824- 
1825.  To  understand  the  trouble  over  the  "midnight  appoint- 
ments" it  is  necessary  to  make  a  brief  study  of  the  judicial  system 
provided  by  the  Constitution ;  and  so  on  with  the  use  of  the  treaty 
power,  the  admission  of  states,  the  acquisition  of  territory  and  the 
Hke. 

After  the  ground  has  been  covered  in  something  like  chrono- 
logical order,  various  phases  of  history  are  taken  up  by  way  of 
review.  Among  the  topics  for  such  review  are  the  following:  The 
Territorial  growth  of  the  United  States;  growth  of  population; 
the  various  important  tariffs;  development  of  transportation;  the 
slavery    question;   political   party   history    and   the   admission   of 


HISTORY  65 

states.  Another  useful  form  of  review  is  found  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  brief  biographies  to  show  the  relation  of  the  characters 
studied  to  the  various  movements  of  their  times. 

Text: — History  of  the  United  States,  Mace,  pp.  337-end. 

References: — How  to  Study  and  Teach  History,  Hinsdale; 
Method  in  History,  Mace;  Pathfinder  in  American  History,  Gordy 
and  Twitchell;  Guide  to  the  Study  of  American  History,  Channing 
and  Hart;  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten,  pp.  162-201;  Report 
of  the  Committee  of  Fifteen,  pp.  252-7;  The  Study  of  History  in 
Schools,  being  the  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Seven,  of  the 
American  Historical  Association,  especially  pp.  158-172;  The 
Teaching  of  History  and  Civics,  Bourne,  especially  chapters  v,  ix, 
xviii  and  xix. 


66 


NATURE  STUDY 


NATURE  STUDY 


The  outlines  for  Nature  Study  published  in  the  Manuals  of 
1903  and  1907  are  still  the  basis  of  our  work.  No  attempt  is  made 
to  follow  them  in  full  in  any  of  the  grades,  but  from  the  list  of 
topics  the  teachers  select  from  time  to  time  those  which  they  can 
use  in  geography,  in  drawing,  in  language,  and  in  stories.  We  give 
no  definite  separate  period  to  Nature  Study  as  such,  yet  in  a  quiet 
far-reaching  way  it  has  a  strong  influence  upon  our  standpoint 
and  upon  the  subject  matter  used  in  many  periods. 

See,  especially,  the  geography  work  of  Grades  I,  II,  and  IV, 
and  note  that  every  excursion  is  as  truly  Nature  Study  as  it  is 
Geography.  Tho  the  third  grade  geography  is  of  another  charac- 
ter, every  story  there  studied  contains  material  which  inspires  a 
deeper  love  for  all  that  is  found  on  this  great  round  ball  we  call 
home. 

References: — Nature  Study,  Jackman;  Systematic  Science 
Teaching,  Howe;  Object  Lessons,  Longman;  Nature  Study  and 
Life,  Hodge;  Nature  Study  and  the  Child,  Scott;  Object  Lessons  in 
Elementary  Science,  Vol.  1-3,  V.  T.  Murche;  Forestry  of  Minnesota, 
Greene;  Minnesota  Plant  Life,  McMillan;  Handbook  of  Birds,  F.  M. 
Chapman;  Practical  Zoology,  B.  P.  Colton;  Outdoor  Studies,  Need- 
ham;  Ants,  Bees,  and  Wasps,  Lubbock;  Lessons  in  Plants,  L.  H. 
Bailey;  Butterflies,  S.  H.  Scudder;  Botanical  Series,  Newell;  Les- 
sons in  Botany,  Gray;     The  Nature  Study  Idea,  Bailey. 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  67 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

I.     INTRODUCTION 

If  we  define  education  as  a  training  for  life,  a  moment's  re- 
flection discloses  physical  education  as  the  foundation  of  the  whole 
structure.  For  the  interdependence  between  the  physical,  mental, 
and  moral  natures  is  so  close,  and  the  boundaries  so  undefined, 
that  exact  separation  seems  impossible.  Therefore  while  physical 
education  is  concerned  primarily  with  the  growth  and  development 
of  the  physical  child,  it  is  also  the  conditioning  factor  in  all  educa- 
tion, in  that  there  must  be  physical  completeness  before  we  can 
hope  for  mental  or  moral  completeness.  Because  educational 
authorities  have  re-awakened  to  these  facts,  physical  education  is 
again  assuming  its  deserved  importance  among  educational  inter- 
ests. But  it  comes  now  in  a  new  aspect,  for,  while  the  physical  is 
emphasized,  and  means  are  taken  to  secure  physical  growth  and 
perfection,  the  latter  are  not  regarded  as  ultimate  ends.  These 
lie,  rather,  in  the  mental  and  moral  natures  which  we  know  are 
quickened  through  the  physical,  and  which  with  the  physical  make 
the  perfect  whole  human  being. 

With  this  view  of  the  province  of  physical  education  we  may 
make  all  of  our  efforts  in  this  field  center  around  the  one  thought, — 
health.  The  department  might  well  be  called  the  department  of 
health.  And  yet  we  aim  to  get  health,  not  merely  for  its  own  sake, 
but  rather  for  that  which  it  makes  possible,  and  which  is  not  found 
if  health  is  lacking.  For  we  define  health  as  organic  etficicncy  — 
the  condition  when  the  individual  feels  most  capable  of  doing  and 
accomplishing.  It  is  then  that  his  powers  are  most  keen,  his  senses 
most  responsive. 


68  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


That  man  must  now  consciously  strive  for  health  is  due  to 
changes  in  his  animal  habits  which  have  made  it  impossible  to  trust 
to  anything  but  definite  direction  as  a  means  of  maintaining  right 
conditions.  To  give  these  directions,  and  to  furnish  incentives  and 
means  for  their  realization  in  the  life  of  each  child,  is  the  work  of 
physical  education.  As  a  school  factor,  it  first  of  all  aims  to  make 
the  school  environment  conducive  to  the  health  of  the  child.  Care- 
ful attention  is  given  to  proper  ventilation,  lighting,  heating,  and 
sanitation  of  the  school  room.  The  school  rooms  are  fitted  with  ad- 
justable chairs  and  desks  in  order  that  there  may  be  made  a  hygi- 
enic adaptation  to  the  requirements  of  the  individual  child.  The 
school  program  is  carefully  tested  by  physical  requirements,  peri- 
ods of  work  alternating  with  periods  of  relaxation;  heed  is  given  to 
length  of  time  spent  upon  each  subject  so  that  undue  strain  and 
fatigue  may  not  occur ;  and  recesses  are  provided  for  free  and  spon- 
taneous play.  In  all  ways,  we  aim  to  keep  our  school  free  from  the 
possibility  of  the  accusation  that  it  is  a  menace  to  the  life  and  health 
of  the  growing  child. 

But,  as  has  been  suggested,  we  teach  health  to  the  child  rather 
than  morbid  physiology  or  scientific  anatomy,  which  he  neither 
understands  nor  is  interested  in.  Health  being  mainly  the  practice 
of  hygienic  habits  of  daily  living,  we  aim  to  impress  upon  the  child 
certain  maxims  and  principles  which  it  should  be  his  duty  to  culti- 
vate and  follow,  that  he  may  be  stronger,  better,  and  more  capable 
of  enjoying  life  and  of  doing  things.  This  instruction  is  informal  in 
method,  there  being  no  text  below  the  eighth  grade.  The  teacher, 
by  suggestion  and  informal  talk,  correlates  this  with  other  interests 
and  activities  of  the  child,  so  that  it  becomes  to  him  a  real  subject 
and  part  of  his  daily  life. 

The  school,  in  taking  the  responsibility  of  educating  the  child, 
feels  it  should  know  just  what  material  it  is  purposing  to  handle. 
It  may  be  the  child  is  not  physically  able  to  receive  the  instruction 
provided,  in  which  case  instruction  is  wasted  and  the  child  not  only 
is  not  benefited,  but  may  possibly  be  injured.  A  child  afflicted 
with  adenoids,  defective  sight  or  hearing,  can  receive  only  dulled 
and  blurred  impressions  which  cause  the  mistakes  and  blunders 
which  have  too  often  been  set  down  to  stupidity.  By  an  in- 
dividual biologic  examination  of  each  child,  made  upon  his  entrance 
into  the  school,  a  knowledge  of  his  physical  condition  is  obtained. 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  69 


If  from  the  tests  made  of  eyes,  ears,  throat,  and  nasal  passages, 
physical  defects  or  abnomiaUties  are  found,  parents  are  advised, 
that  steps  may  be  taken  for  the  removal  or  alleviation  of  the  same. 
In  addition,  there  are  recorded  certain  physical  measurements  in- 
dicative of  the  child's  growth  and  development,  and  observations 
are  made  for  round  shoulders,  flat  chest,  crooked  spine,  and  bad 
posture.  This  work  is  in  the  hands  of  the  director  of  physical  edu- 
cation, acting  with  the  assistance  and  advice  of  the  school  physician. 
The  last  diWsion  in  the  field  appHes  directly  to  the  motor  ac- 
tivities of  the  child.  Thruout  the  elementary  school  he  is  passing 
thru  stages  of  physical  growth  and  development  when  movement 
is  his  body's  main  need,  and  the  craving  for  it  his  foremost  instinct. 
Action  is  the  law  of  growth,  and  if  denied  or  hampered,  the  organ- 
ism is  sure  to  suffer  in  some  of  its  parts.  It  is  frankly  acknowledged 
that  school,  as  an  organization,  lacks  too  entirely  opportunities 
whereby  the  child  can  and  ought  to  expend  his  motor  energy.  The 
gymnasium  suppHes  in  part  this  lack.  Not  only  to  satisfy  hygienic 
requirements,  but  sound  pedagogical  reasoning  as  well,  the  work  on 
the  gymnasium  floor  is  justified  as  forming  a  vital  part  in  the  educa- 
tion of  the  child  —  both  in  its  subject  matter  and  its  method  of 
presentation.  Action  is  the  child's  first  and,  for  some  time,  only 
form  of  expression.  Ideas  grow  and  strengthen  only  as  they  have 
opportunity  to  be  expressed.  In  the  nature  of  the  activities  steady 
progression  is  observed,  corresponding  to  the  developing  changes 
in  the  child's  physical  and  mental  growth.  The  activities  in  the 
gymnasium  are,  for  the  most  part,  taken  from  the  child's  own 
world,  closely  allied  to  his  interests  and  former  experiences, —  ma- 
terial which  he  already  knows,  can  understand,  and  in  which  he  can 
grow.  Plays,  games,  and  folk  dances  form  a  large  part  of  the  pro- 
gram. In  the  plays  and  games  there  is  material  which  not  only 
gives  the  child  the  needed  opportunity  to  express  and  delight  him- 
self in  movement,  but  also  as  supervised  work  in  the  hands  of  the 
instructor  it  is  the  means  of  developing  such  social,  ethical,  and  in- 
tellectual qualities  as  are  required  to  play  a  good  game,  and  play 
it  fair.  The  folk  dance  is  of  historic  and  cultural  interest,  repre- 
senting a  primitive  form  of  expression  still  employed  among  certain 
foreign  folk.  This  type  of  exercise  conduces  to  grace  of  movement, 
and  is  dehghtful  to  the  child,  satisfying  the  dramatic  instinct  and 
love  of  rhvthm. 


70  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


It  has  seemed  wise  to  retain  certain  formal  exercises  involving 
large  movements  of  the  trunk  and  limbs  for  hygienic  and  corrective 
reasons.  These  are  graded  as  to  difficulty  in  execution  and  amount 
of  co-ordination  required,  involving  steady  progression.  In  the 
earlier  grades,  the  movements  are  representative,  so  far  as  possible, 
of  forms  of  life  known  to  the  child.  Marching,  varied  in  type  as 
suited  to  the  different  grades,  is  used  as  valuable  in  maintaining  cor- 
rect posture  in  standing  and  walking,  in  drilHng  the  body  to  answer 
quickly  to  command,  and  in  satisfying  an  inherent  sense  for  bodily 
rhythm. 

While  from  the  gymnasium  activities  strong  neuro -muscular 
control  develops,  it  is  remembered  that  the  gymnasium  period  is 
in  part  one  of  relaxation  for  the  child,  and  close  demands  upon  his 
nervous  system  as  a  form  of  training  are  avoided.  Much  of  the 
work  is  done  to  the  accompaniment  of  music,  which  contributes  to 
the  joyousness  of  action,  and  leads  to  the  development  of  the  aes- 
thetic in  the  child. 

In  addition  to  the  exercises  already  mentioned,  there  is  some 
apparatus  work,  light  in  nature  and  carefully  supervised  to  avoid 
all  danger  of  strain  and  injury.  Swimming  is  taught,  not  only  as 
a  valuable  exercise  for  all  round  development,  involving  mental  and 
moral  as  well  as  physical  qualities,  but  because  it  is  believed  man 
should  be  master  of  his  body  in  all  environments  —  in  water  as 
w^ell  as  on  land. 

After  the  sixth  grade  the  boys  and  girls  work  in  separate  classes, 
which  seems  advisable  because  of  the  marked  organic  changes  ap- 
pearing at  this  time.  There  follows  a  general  outline  of  the  work 
in  the  grades. 

Note.  Because  of  the  necessity  for  keeping  the  number  of 
pupils  evenly  distributed,  the  school  is  this  year  divided  into  six 
divisions  and  the  kindergarten,  as  follows: 

Kindergarten. 

First     division,  first  and  second  grades. 

Second        "         third  and  B  fourth  grades. 

Third  "         A  fourth  and  B  fifth  grades. 

Fourth        "         A  fifth  and  sixth  grades. 

Fifth  "         seventh  grade. 

Sixth  "         eighth  grade  and  review  class. 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  71 


II.     SUBJECT-MATTER 
FIRST  DIVISION 

a.  Marching.     This  is  informal  in   nature,  with   few   commands 

and  no  attempt  to  force  the  child  to  keep  time  or  step. 

b.  Free  Hand  Movements.     Large  fundamental  movements  of  the 

trunk  and  liml)s  are  mainly  involved.  Forms  of  Hfe  and  ac- 
tivities known  to  the  child  are  imitated,  thus  keeping  the  work 
allied  to  his  interests. 

c.  Games  and  Plays.  These  occupy  the  largest  part  of  the  pro- 
gram. The  games  are  in  the  main  unorganized,  non-com- 
petitive, and  non-co-operative,  appealing  to  the  dramatic  and 
imaginative  interests,  rather  than  calling  for  skill.  The  chil- 
dren run  and  jump  for  the  mere  pleasure  of  the  activity,  rather 
than  for  any  outside  end  to  be  gained.  Certain  singing  games 
and  games  set  to  music  form  an  elementary  exercise  in  rhythm 
preparatory  to  the  later  folk  dances. 

SECOND  DIVISION 

a.  Marching.  SHght  progression  from  work  done  in  the  first  di- 
vision —  children  are  held  to  keeping  step  and  gradually  ac- 
quire the  facings  and  easier  movements.  The  marching  is 
mainly  in  column  form,  correct  posture  being  obtained  by  sug- 
gestion rather  than  direction. 

b.  Free  Movements.     These  are  still  recreative  in  nature,  as  in  the 

first  division  —  movements  are  used  as  suggested  by  the  chil- 
dren, exercising  creative  instinct.  Some  apparatus  work  is 
introduced  —  Hght  in  nature,  such  as  rope  climbing  and  swing- 
ing. 

c.  Games  and  Folk  Dances.  The  games  are  more  organized  — 
certain  rules  and  limitations  in  playing  are  observed.  An  op- 
portunity is  given  for  individual  work,  as  in  "Tag"  and  "Fol- 
low the  Leader."  Imitation  is  still  a  strong  force.  Particu- 
lar care  is  taken  to  avoid  fatigue.  Simple  folk  dances  are  in- 
troduced. 

THIRD  DIVISION 

a.  Marching.  Graded  introduction  of  step  positions  and  figure 
fomiations,  with  closer  insistence  upon  quick  response. 


72  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


b.  Free  Hand  Movements.  Beginning  to  be  more  fonnal  in  nature, 
but  still  related  to  the  child's  other  interests.  Light  work  con- 
tinued on  such  apparatus  as  the  stall  bars,  rings,  and  ropes. 

c.  Games  and  Folk  Dances.  An  increase  is  made  in  amount  of 
skill  demanded,  while  there  is  less  appeal  to  the  dramatic  and 
imitative  instincts.  Social  games  beginning  to  be  introduced, 
games  where  there  exists  competition  between  groups. 

FOURTH  DIVISION 

a.  Marching.     Flank   and   column  marching  introduced.     Rules 

given  for  good  bearing  in  posture  and  walking. 

b.  Formal  Gymnastics.     Apparatus  work  included ;  movements  be- 

come more  localized,  and  greater  insistence  is  made  upon  cor- 
rectness of  execution.  Attention  is  now  paid  to  technique. 
An  appeal  is  made  to  the  child's  reasoning  powers  to  hold  his 
interest  in  the  exercises. 

c.  Games  and  Dances.  The  group  work  is  more  highly  organ- 
ized. The  child  is  encouraged  to  increase  his  skill  in  doing  that 
which  has  become  to  him  an  apparent  means  for  gaining  a 
desired  end.  More  rules  and  regulations  govern  the  games  to 
satisfy  the  child's  rapidly  growing  reasoning  powers.  This 
seems  a  particularly  apt  time  for  the  dance  work,  as  the  child 
has  not  yet  come  to  his  self-conscious  period,  while  his  dramatic 
instinct,  which  finds  expression  in  the  dance,  is  still  with  him. 

FIFTH  AND  SIXTH  DIVISIONS 

A  distinction  is  made  in  the  nature  of  the  work  as  adapted  to 
the  sexes,  the  boys  and  girls  being  in  different  classes. 

a.  Marching.     For  the  boys  the  type  of  marching  is  distinctly  mil- 

itary in  commands  and  formations.  Quick  bodily  response  as 
a  mark  of  bodily  control  is  enjoined.  For  the  girls  the  march- 
ing consists  rather  of  fancy  steps  and  formations. 

b.  Formal  Work  and  Gymnastics.  In  the  localized,  definite  move- 
ments which  are  used,  there  is  required  a  closer  co-ordination 
and  finer  exactitude  of  execution  than  in  the  earlier  divisions. 
Movements  are  vigorous,  but  not  long-sustained,  as  this  is  a 
period  of  easy  fatigue  for  both  boys  and  girls.  Great  care  is 
observed  in  all  exercises  to  avoid  strain  and  over-taxing.     As 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


it  is  a  time  of  vital  changes,  the  exercises  are  planned  more  par- 
ticularly for  hygienic  and  corrective  purposes.  Track  work 
forms  a  feature  for  the  boys  particularly. 

Games  and  Dances.  The  games  now  involve  specialized  team 
work  in  which  the  individual  is  becoming  subordinate  to  his 
group.  Play  has  become  a  discipline  to  mind  and  body.  Such 
quahties  as  self-control,  unselfishness,  obedience,  and  a  sense  of 
fairness  have  become  the  necessary  qualifications  for  "playing 
the  game."  In  the  case  of  the  girls,  particularly,  the  element 
of  competition  is  guarded  lest  it  .lead  to  serious  mental  or  phys- 
ical strain.  For  them  the  aim  is  rather  wholesome  fun  derived 
from  moderate  exercise. 


74  REVIEW  CLASS 


REVIEW  CLASS 

I.     INTRODUCTION 

The  review  class  is  primarily  a  class  in  which  pupils  of  irregular 
grade  preparation,  but  of  some  maturity  are  trained.  Pupils  hold- 
ing eighth  grade  diplomas,  who  are  unable  to  enter  the  normal  de- 
partment, and  others  capable  of  doing  eighth  grade  w^ork  but  not 
suited  to  forming  a  part  of  the  regular  eighth  grade,  are  admitted 
to  some  section  of  this  class.  While,  normally,  a  pupil  is  not  re- 
quired to  enter  the  review  class  after  he  has  finished  the  eighth 
grade  of  our  elementary  school,  there  are  occasions  when  this  is 
necessary,  (1)  when  the  immaturity  of  the  pupil  makes  it  ad- 
visable for  him  to  do  additional  work  for  a  period  before  his  en- 
trance to  high  school  or  the  normal  department,  (2)  when  for  one 
period  of  six  weeks  between  the  close  of  our  half  year  in  the  ele- 
mentary school  and  the  beginning  of  the  spring  term  in  the  normal 
department,  we  urge  our  eighth  grade  graduates  to  take  the  work 
of  the  review  class  rather  than  remain  out  of  school  until  the  open- 
ing of  the  spring  term ;  and  (3)  since  the  High  School  has  an  enter- 
ing class  only  in  September,  when  our  eighth  grade  pupils  complete 
the  work  in  mid-year,  they  are  advised  to  form  a  special  class  or- 
ganized for  their  accommodation,  the  work  of  which  is  adapted 
to  their  needs. 

The  time  required  for  completing  the  work  of  the  review  class 
depends  largely  upon  the  nature  of  the  previous  preparation  of  the 
individual,  the  degree  of  his  maturity,  and  his  power  to  do  inde- 
pendent thought-work.  At  the  opening  of  each  term  in  the  normal 
department  (once  in  three  months),  tests  are  given  and  pupils  who 
show  sufficient  power  of  application  and  ability  to  do  independent 
thinking  are  permitted  to  enter  the  normal  department. 

The  work  done  in  the  review  class  varies  widely  in  the  different 
divisions  of  the  grade,  and  from  year  to  year,  but  is  essentially  a 
complete  review  of  the  subjects  taught,  with  special  emphasis  upon 


REVIEW  CLASS  75 


organization  of  subject  matter,  seeing  of  relative  values  and  rela- 
tions, and  upon  training  in  independent  work.  Accordingly,  topical 
recitations,  outline  work,  and  reference  readings  are  emphasized. 

II.  SUBJECT-MATTER 

ARITHMETIC 

The  aim  is  to  secure  absolute  accuracy,  reasonable  rapidity, 
thoughtful  concentration,  and  general  information.  Proficiency  in 
the  use  of  the  essential  processes  being  necessary,  not  only  because 
in  business  life  a  large  majority  of  the  problems  involve  them,  but 
also  because  no  satisfactory  work  in  mathematics  in  the  higher 
grades  can  be  done  without  this  foundation,  the  first  work  of  the 
year  is  given  to  a  careful,  vigorous,  thoro  review  of  reading  and 
writing  numbers;  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and  di- 
vision of  integers,  of  common  and  decimal  fractions;  denominate 
numbers ;  mensuration ;  simple  percentage  and  simple  interest.  Then 
topics  of  general  informational  value,  including  commercial  dis- 
count, taxes,  insurance,  commission,  stocks  and  bonds,  banking, 
square  root,  and  the  metric  system  are  studied. 

Texts:     Under  advisement. 

References:  Committee  of  Ten,  Methods  in  Mathematics, 
Dewey  and  McLellan,  Psychology  of  Number,  chap.  XV,  Percent- 
age; McMurry,  Special  Method  in  Arithmetic;  Smith,  Teaching  of 
Elementary  Mathematics;  Young,  The  Teaching  of  Mathematics. 

GRAMMAR 

In  the  study  of  grammar,  thought  analysis  is  made  the  basis  in 
the  belief  that  technical  EngHsh  has  a  place  in  the  elementary 
school  only  so  far  as  it  assists  in  ready  and  clear  interpretation  of 
thought,  or  as  it  affords  a  working  knowledge  of  the  best  usages  of 
the  language  that  becomes  instrumental  in  securing  correct  and 
more  effective  spoken  or  written  English.  Careful  attention  is  given 
to  oral  and  written  work  incidental  to  all  subjects.  Where  other 
work  permits,  a  distinct  class  in  composition  is  organized.  Here 
a  study  is  made  of  the  paragraph  and  of  the  simpler  forms  of  letter 
writing,  narration,  description,  and  argumentation.  Story  telling 
and  memorizing  of  poems  are  encouraged. 


76  REVIEW  CLASS 


Texts:  Grammar,  under  advisement — See  Pa/t  II.  Composi- 
tion, Gilbert  and  Harris. 

References:  Chubb,  The  Teaching  of  Enghsh;  Carpenter, 
Baker,  and  Scott,  The  Teaching  of  English;  Hinsdale,  Teaching  of 
the  Language  Arts;  Buehler,  Practical  Exercises  in  English;  Dye, 
Letters  and  Letter  Writing;  Spaulding,  The  Problem  of  Elemen- 
tary Composition. 

At  different  periods  of  the  year,  according  to  the  needs  of  the 
class,  work  may  be  given  in  geography,  history,  or  civics,  all  of 
which  are  so  closely  connected  that  the  work  of  each  should  re- 
inforce that  of  the  others. 

GEOGRAPHY 

The  study  of  geography  in  this  grade  should  have  a  practical 
value  in  the  giving  of  information  which  every  intelligent  person 
should  possess,  a  sociological  value  in  showing  the  interdependence 
of  men,  and  a  general  value  in  leading  to  the  development  of  power 
in  seeing  relations  and  interpreting  situations  and  facts.  The  work 
consists  of  a  review  of  practically  the  whole  subject.  Much  refer- 
ence work  is  done. 

Texts :     Dodge  and  Tarr  and  McMurry. 

References:  McMurry,  Method  of  the  Recitation;  Parker, 
How  to  Teach  Geography;  Arnold,  Waymarks  for  Teachers; 
Geikie,  Teaching  of  Geography;  George,  The  Relation  of  Geogra- 
phy and  History. 

HISTORY 

The  chief  objects  emphasized  in  the  study  of  history  in  this 
grade  are  training  in  seeing  the  proper  relation  of  cause  and  effect ; 
teaching  of  certain  governmental  principles ;  and  developing  appre- 
ciation of  the  worth  of  moral  strength,  of  the  labors  of  our  ances- 
tors, and  their  legacy  to  us.  The  work  consists  of  a  new  view  of 
the  whole  subject  of  American  history  and  seeks  to  organize  the 
material  into  large  units. 

Text:     Mace's  History  of  United  States. 

References:  In  addition  to  those  given  under  General  Ref- 
erences; Harrison,  The  ]\Ieaning  of  History. 


REVIEW  CLASS  77 


CIVICS 

The  work  done  in  this  subject  is  based  upon  the  notion  that  all 
education  should  prepare  the  individual  for  community  life.  Ac- 
cordingly, we  give  some  understanding  of  the  nature  and  meaning 
of  life  in  a  community  and  of  the  relation  of  the  individual  to  it. 
Thruout  the  course  ethical  values  are  emphasized  and  the  work  is 
given  as  much  local  significance  as  seems  wise.  Much  reference 
work  is  done. 

Text:     Dunn,  The  Community  and  the  Citizen. 

References:  See  preface  to  text  regarding  aim  and  method 
of  course;  Bourne,  Teaching  of  History  and  Civics;  Small  and  Vin- 
cent, Study  of  Society. 

READING 

In  the  reading  work  of  this  grade  the  aim  is  to  gain  power  in 
understanding  the  thought  of  the  printed  page,  to  increase  the  vo- 
cabulary, to  train  the  voice,  and  break  up  habits  of  slovenly  and 
careless  speech,  to  cultivate  the  emotional  side  of  the  pupil,  and 
to  develop  a  taste  for  good  literature.  Relatively  more  time  is 
given  to  specifically  intensive  reading  than  to  extensive  work,  while 
about  half  the  time  is  used  for  such  a  combination  of  the 
two  as  the  interests  of  the  class  seem  to  demand. 

Texts:  Masterpieces  of  American  Literature;  Shakespeare, 
Julius  Caesar  and  Merchant  of  Venice;  Lamb,  Tales  from  Shake- 
speare; Eliot,  Silas  Marner;  Scott,  Lady  of  the  Lake;  Dickens, 
Christmas  Carol;  Hale,  Man  without  a  Country;  etc. 

References:  Hinsdale,  Teaching  the  Language  Arts;  Mc- 
Murry,  Special  Method  in  Literature  and  History;  McMurry's  Spe- 
cial Method  in  Reading  of  Complete  English  Classics;  Hueys'  Psy- 
chology of  Reading;  Clark,  How  to  Teach  Reading  in  Public  Schools; 
Arnold,  Reading,  How  to  Teach  It;  Chubb,  The  Teaching  of  En- 
glish; Carpenter,  Baker,  and  Scott,  The  Teaching  of  EngUsh. 

SPELLING 

Regular  lessons  are  given  in  spelling.  The  lists  are  taken  from 
the  text  books  used  and  from  actual  mistakes  in  written  work. 
Frequent  dictation  exercises,  diacritical  markings,  and  the  use  of 
words  in  sentences  are  important.  Stress  is  laid  upon  the  teaching 
of  the  spelling  lesson. 


78  NEW  FACULTY  MEMBERS 

PHYSIOLOGY 

The  prime  motive  in  the  teaching  of  this  subject  is  the  acquir- 
ing of  knowledge  necessary  to  the  care  and  health  of  the  human 
body.  Accordingly,  special  attention  is  given  to  a  study  of  foods, 
exercise,  ventilation,  and  like  topics. 

Text:     Hutchinson's  Laws  of  Health. 

MUSIC  AND  DRAWING 

These  subjects  are  taken  with  the  eighth  grade,  the  work  be- 
ing adapted  to  the  needs  of  both  divisions  and  much  individual 
work  being  necessary. 


LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR  79 


PART  II 

LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR 

I.  INTRODUCTION 

A  study  of  the  aims  of  language  work  emphasizes  the  fact 
that  it  should  seek  to  give  expression  to  the  child's  experience  as 
it  actually  is.  Language  work  carries  a  magician's  wand  of  three- 
fold power;  it  gives  the  child  firm  foothold  from  which  he  may 
take  his  next  step  upward;  it  throws  the  light  of  self-knowledge 
among  the  shadows  of  that  chaotic  self  whence  his  personality 
struggles  to  emerge;  it  finds  for  him  a  voice  which  hastens  his 
social  birth  and  sets  him  with  his  fellows  and  of  them,  not  merely 
among  them.  Each  of  the  three  is  of  vital  import  to  the  child's 
progress. 

At  almost  any  point  in  his  development  his  power  may  be 
stunted  by  a  growing  disproportion  between  his  experience  and 
his  expression.  This  disproportion  may  be  comparatively  harm- 
less up  to  a  certain  limit ;  when  that  limit  is  reached  it  is  paralyzing. 
Crudity  of  expression  on  one  plane  becomes  crudity  of  thought  on 
the  next  higher;  one  can  think  and  feel  somewhat  in  advance  of 
his  power  of  expression,  but  that  distance  is  limited.  Inadequate 
language  development  in  early  years  thus  works  incalculable  harm 
to  later  thought,  but  so  subtly  that  it  is  often  impossible  to  sift  the 
induced  from  the  native  imbecility  which  makes  barren  the  years 
of  thought.  Nor  does  the  blighting  effect  of  cramped  expression 
desolate  the  narrow  field  of  thought  alone;  its  frost  blackens  a  far 
wider  and  richer  area  of  consciousness  than  that;  delicate  percep- 
tions die  away,  fragile  aspirations  droop,  yearnings  toward  the 
high  fade  to  dull  commonplace,  for  lack  of  developing  expression. 
How  many  an  appeal  falls  on  deaf  ears  because  the  emotion  that 
could  have  given  it  answer  died  of  solitary  confinement  in  an 
unexpressed  childhood!     How  vainly  do  we  build  ideals  as  dwell- 


80  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR 


ings  for  our  youths  when  the  feelings  on  which  we  must  found 
them  have  never  known  greater  substance  than  is  given  them  by 
a  surge  of  hazy  emotion !  How  well  for  his  later  growth  had  they 
been  defined,  hardened,  made  usable,  by  embodiment  in  objective 
form !  In  thought  and  feeling  alike  the  higher  must  find  foothold 
in  the  lower;  how  needful  then  that  each  higher  in  its  turn  shall 
gain  form  and  firmness  for  the  sake  of  that  higher  still  which 
looks  to  it  for  support.  Language  work  gives  substance  to  the 
child's  new  acquisitions;  it  is  in  this  the  handmaid  of  his  progress. 

This  supplying  of  starting  places  for  new  reaches  is  not  the 
only  function  of  language  work.  The  child  knows  his  thought 
better  after  he  has  expressed  it,  much  as  he  sees  an  object  truer 
after  he  has  drawn  it.  The  scrutiny  of  his  thought  which  precedes 
expression  reveals  new  values,  results  before  unseen,  defects  be- 
fore unfelt;  and  he  will  as  surely  know  his  feeling  in  a  new  way 
when  he  has  projected  it  in  words.  New  lights  and  shades  emerge 
as  he  studies  to  give  it  to  another  truly.  He  seizes  his  fluid  ex- 
perience and  struggles  to  imprison  it  in  words  thru  a  bewildering 
variety  of  shapes,  until,  like  the  old  man  of  the  sea  in  the  hero's 
clutch,  it  lies  at  last  in  his  grasp  in  its  true  form.  Nor  is  this  all; 
self-knowledge  is  self-correction.  Let  him  but  learn  the  lineaments 
of  his  thought  well  enough  to  chisel  out  its  likeness  in  words  and 
he  will  straighten  many  a  twist;  let  him  learn  the  soul  of  his  feel- 
ing well  enough  to  breathe  its  life  into  words  and  he  Vv^ill  strangle 
much  that  is  ignoble  and  extravagant.  Language  work,  then, 
leads  him  to  know  that  mystery  which  is  his  self;  and  it  is  in  this 
the  handmaid  of  his  betterment. 

But  the  fullest  worth  of  the  individual  comes  not  thru  self- 
advance  nor  yet  thru  self-knowledge,  but  thru  his  touch  with 
others.  Sympathies,  faiths,  keep  silence  within  us,  dumb  in  the 
fear  of  distortion  by  a  garb  of  unaccustomed  words.  If  the  worst 
were  that  clumsy  expression  merely  concealed  the  thought,  one 
might  risk  it;  but  it  mocks  at  it.  And  who  will  see  his  deepest 
self  don  the  fool's  mask?  Anything  that  will  uncover  these  hidden 
values  is  of  great  worth ;  and  the  power  to  clothe  the  inner  reality 
in  clinging  folds  of  wording  which  shall  reveal  its  true  outlines, 
makes  actual,  stores  of  potential  worth  within  us.  Langviage  work 
seeks  in  this  way  to  free  the  child's  social  energy;  it  is  thus  the 
handmaid  of  his  social  value. 


LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR  81 


This,  then,  is  the  triple  aim  of  our  lanjjuage  work:  to  crystal- 
lize, to  illumine,  to  share,  the  child's  true  self.  What  bearing  has 
it  on  the  selection  of  subject  matter?  Its  demand  is  obvious.  The 
work  must  seek  to  give  expression  to  the  child  as  he  is;  his  thought 
it  must  be,  not  his  teacher's  that  he  expresses;  his  feelings  as  they 
are,  not  as  we  wish  they  were;  his  language  work  must  reflect  his 
actual  self,  to-day  as  he  is  to-day,  to-morrow  as  he  then  is.  He 
will  not  be  helped  to  think  a  step  in  advance  by  stumbling  thru 
the  organization  of  a  thought  that  never  was  his,  or  grow  rounded 
and  sane  in  feeling,  by  an  insincere  effort  to  say  what  he  never  has 
felt ;  he  will  be  no  more  at  home  in  himself  by  rambling  wordily 
afield  thru  a  content  foreign  to  him;  and  efforts  to  handle  words 
and  forms  for  their  own  sake  but  bury  deeper  under  habits  of  in- 
sincere sj)eech  the  path  from  his  inner  self  to  revealing  expression. 
A  study  of  the  aims  of  language  work  thus  puts  emy^hasis  on  our 
first  practical  maxim;  the  subject  matter  of  every  lesson  must  be 
not  only  within  the  range  of  the  child's  experience,  but  actually 
present  in  it,  when  expression  is  demanded. 

Our  second  practical  maxim  flows  from  a  study  of  the  need 
met  by  expression.  One  speaks  to  be  heard;  this  is  set  forth  alike 
by  the  theory  of  speech  and  by  the  practice  of  the  great  masters 
who  have  enriched  human  life  vvith  noble  literature.  The  only 
reason  for  writing  at  all  is  to  share;  this  demands  that  the  child  be 
set  the  conscious  task  of  arousing  in  another  the  perfect  counter- 
part of  his  thought,  feeling,  experience.  His  paragraphing  is 
tested  by  the  way  the  subject  lies  in  his  own  mind;  his  sentences 
by  their  skill  in  giving  tiic  content  to  another  in  its  true  relations, 
his  words  by  the  truth  of  the  impressions  created.  Every  rule 
good  writing  asks  him  to  observe  has  been  evolved  by  such  striv- 
ing and  can  be  given  him  in  response  to  his  own  sharp  need.  The 
content  is  the  life;  the  form  the  outer  garment,  shaped  by  what  it 
clothes.  The  outer  but  reflects  the  inner;  the  inner  demancls  the 
outer.  If,  then,  you  would  mould  the  child's  expression,  look  to 
those  forces  which  brougiit  language  into  being;  the  vitality  of 
the  thing  to  be  communicated  and  the  creative  necessity  of  sharing 
it.  Thence  is  derived  our  second  practical  maxim:  Pressure  for 
form  must  be  exerted  by  the  content  thru  a  motive  for  sharing  that 
content. 

Tiie  acceptance  of  these  principles  in  theory  brings  us  face  to 


82  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR 

face  with  the  question  of  detail  in  practice.  How  shall  we  apply 
these  maxims  to  the  separate  items  of  the  technique  of  expression  ? 
We  find  two  things  essential  to  the  successful  using  of  the  energy 
of  the  content:  (1)  There  must  be  a  variety  of  flexible  language 
forms  at  the  child's  command,  and  (2)  his  language  resources  of 
word  and  form  must  be  trained  to  respond  not  to  the  teacher's 
call  for  one  form  or  another,  but  to  the  call  of  his  own  thought  — 
of  the  thing  he  has  to  express.  We  try  to  work  from  within,  out; 
to  push  the  children  to  a  new  form  by  the  impetus  of  the  content, 
exacting  a  true  image  of  itself.  Words  are  multiplied  in  response 
to  the  child's  need  of  expressing  a  sharply  defined  idea;  punctua- 
tion becomes  a  means  of  showing  his  readers  the  adherences  or 
separations  of  his  thought;  paragraphs  mark  its  articulations;  and 
varied  sentence  forms  are  forced  upon  him  thru  a  content  demand- 
ing their  use. 

The  subtlety  and  complexity  of  language  work  makes  the 
definiteness  of  purpose,  essential  in  all  teaching,  especially  impera- 
tive in  the  language  hour.  To  insure  definitely  progressive  work, 
the  teacher  must  have  a  clear  idea  not  only  of  what  is  to  be  accom- 
plished in  her  own  grade,  but  of  its  relation  to  what  precedes  and 
follows,  and  she  must  keep  these  three  points  of  view  ever  in  mind. 
To  aid  the  teacher  in  obtaining  an  easy  grasp  of  this  triple  task, 
an  analysis  of  the  development  of  each  separate  element  of  lan- 
guage-control —  vocabulary,  punctuation,  paragraphing,  sentence 
variety  —  is  here  set  down  to  supplement  the  analysis  of  the  work 
by  grades  which  follows. 

Vocabulary  work  inins  thruout  all  the  grades  with  more  nearly 
even  stress  than  does  any  other  part  of  language  work,  yet  it  will 
be  useful  to  note  likenesses  and  diflerences.  The  one  thing  that 
is  alike  in  all  vocabulary  work  is  that  new  words  are  given  the 
child  in  response  to  a  definite  need.  Wordstudy  apart  from  actual 
use  affects  the  child's  reading  vocabulary,  but  is  of  slight  value 
elsewhere.  Even  to  require  him  to  put  into  a  sentence  words  thus 
studied  helps  but  little,  for  the  sentence  thus  produced  is  the  re- 
sult of  no  real  effort  to  share  a  thought;  it  is  purely  formal.  From 
the  first  grade  to  the  ninth,  then,  words  are  to  be  supplied  when 
exigencies  of  writing  or  speaking  demand  them. 

The  differences  in  vocabulary  work  from  grade  to  grade  are 
the  result  of  two  distinct  phases  of  the  child's  development: 


LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR  83 

(1)  The  child's  experience  continuously  broadens  and  deepens. 
Children  of  all  ages  are  word -poor ;  that  is,  they  lack  words  to  express 
experiences  actually  theirs.  In  all  grades,  then,  direct  naming  of 
things,  of  their  attributes,  activities,  and  parts,  of  relations,  of 
feelings,  must  be  constantly  carried  on.  In  the  earlier  grades 
these  can  usvially  be  supplied  by  the  skilful  teacher  in 
connection  with  other  work  but  from  the  third  grade  on 
whole  lessons  are  occasionally  needed  for  this  purpose.  Com- 
parison of  objects  is  useful  here,  e.  g.  an  apple  with  an  orange, 
3rd  grade,  a  peacock  with  a  hen,  4th  grade,  the  actions  and  post- 
ures of  a  listening  Indian  with  those  of  a  boy  playing,  (5th  and  6th) 
Hawthorne's  face  with  Carlyle's  (7th  and  Sth).  Construction 
work,  no  matter  in  connection  with  what  work  it  is  carried  on, 
should  also  be  utilized  by  the  teacher  with  full  realization  of  its 
language  value.  As  soon  as  the  child  can  grasp  large  and  com- 
plex undertakings,  descriptions  of  activities  around  him  furnish 
the  need  for  a  host  of  new  words.  An  example  of  this  sort  of 
work  is  a  chronicle  of  the  steps  in  the  erection  of  some  public 
building,  with  measurements,  materials,  processes,  accurately  given. 
Abstract  ideas  should  be  carefully  examined,  made  definite,  and 
supplied  with  a  vocabulary,  as  they  appear  in  a  child's  thought 
life.  This  work  assumes  growing  importance  from  the  sixth 
grade  on.  The  child  should  be  guarded,  on  the  one  hand,  against 
the  fatal  habit  of  being  willing  to  say  things  in  recitation  which 
have  no  meaning  to  him,  and,  on  the  other,  against  the  danger  of 
losing  his  grasp  on  an  idea  for  lack  of  a  word  to  pin  to.  The  thing 
to  be  insisted  on  in  all  this  word  collecting  is  that  the  words  sup- 
plied be  those  called  for  by  the  child's  experience.  A  long  word 
is  as  good  as  a  short  one,  an  abstract  one  as  a  concrete  one,  if  the 
child  has  real  use  for  it. 

(2)  The  child  grows  from  the  desire  to  use  language  as  mere 
self-expression  into  the  desire  to  use  language  as  a  tool  in  his  social 
Ufe. 

Both  sorts  of  speech  are  present  in  every  grade  and  should  be 
diflferently  handled.  The  prime  thing  for  the  teacher  to  secure  in 
self-expressive  speech  is  spontaneity;  the  prime  thing  to  be  obtained 
in  social  speech  is  clearness  —  not  dry-as-dust  dictionary  correct- 
ness, but  accuracy  in  creating  the  exact  impres.sion  desired,  whether 
on  intellect,  feeling,  or  both.     Spontaneity  is  secured  through  in- 


84  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR 

terest,  much  unhampered  practice,  and  stimulation  of  the  imagina- 
tion; clearness  thru  the  habit  of  measuring  the  effect  of  what  one 
says  on  his  hearers. 

In  the  earlier  grades  much  opportunity  for  the  free  pla}^  of 
the  language  instinct  is  offered.  Words  are  supplied  steadily  but 
as  unobtrusively  as  possible.  There  is  little  attempt  to  make  the 
child  critical  of  his  language :  the  thing  desired  is  to  have  his  thought 
run  freely,  to  exercise  his  spontaneity,  and  keep  it  full  and  fresh. 
Examples  of  exercises  for  this  purpose  are  the  free  retelling  of 
stories  which  have  interested  the  child,  unhampered  accounts  of 
adventures  and  pleasures,  and  purely  imaginative  work,  in  which 
not  even  the  check  of  fact  is  put  on  the  child's  flow  of  language. 
In  the  first  two  grades  this  last  exercise  may  well  take  the  form  of 
make  believe  dreams.  The  children  may  close  their  eyes  for  a 
short  time,  to  let  the  play  of  imagination  go  on  unchecked,  and 
then  tell  whatever  riot  of  ideas  took  place  in  their  minds.  Third, 
fourth,  and  fifth  grades  like  imaginative  stories,  either  without  any 
starting  point,  or  starting  from  a  picture,  a  proverb,  or  a  half -told 
story.  Sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  grades  enjoy,  in  addition,  the 
writing  of  plays  and  stories  which  develop  favorite  episodes  or 
dramatic  situations,  suggested  by  their  other  studies.  Some  op- 
portunity for  the  free  working  out  in  language  of  the  child's  imagi- 
native life  must  be  carefully  provided  for  in  every  grade.  In  all 
this  work  words  are  to  be  supplied  generously  but  quietly  by  the 
teacher. 

Even  in  the  lower  grades,  however,  the  teacher  must  be  ever 
watchful  to  mould  the  social  speech  which  the  child  is  already 
using,  and  when  opportunity  arises,  v/hether  it  be  in  the  language 
hour,  in  another  lesson,  or  in  play  hours,  it  should  be  met  by  using 
the  social  situation  to  help  the  child  get  the  effective  wording. 
Examples  of  this  incidental  w^ork  are  (1)  the  assumed  misunder- 
standing of  an  inaccurately  worded  question  or  statement,  or  of 
obscure  directions  for  playing  a  game  in  which  the  teacher  joins 
the  children;  and  (2)  the  writing  of  invitations  to  some  school  func- 
tion, in  which  time  and  place  must  be  made  clear.  In  the  third 
grade  the  social  motive  is  applied  to  whole  series  of  lessons,  e.  g., 
the  class  may  together  prepare  a  story  or  present  a  dramatization. 
But  while  the  work  as  a  whole  is  now  consciously  directed  toward 
affecting  others,  and  is  thus  a  basis  for  later  self-critical  word- 


LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR  85 


study,  there  is  no  conscious  choice  of  words,  no  examination  of  the 
effectiveness  of  this  word  as  compared  with  that.  In  the  fourth 
and  hfth  grades  some  beginnings  are  made  in  selecting  words  with 
a  social  purpose,  an  example  of  which  is  the  following:  Let  each 
child  be  given  a  short  story  to  read  and  retell  to  the  class.  Let 
him  decide  where  the  most  interesting  point  is,  and  how  he  wishes 
to  make  the  class  feel  at  that  point.  Let  him  then  make  a  list  of 
words  which  he  thinks  will  be  useful  in  creating  that  impression. 
The  stories  must,  of  course,  be  new  to  the  class.  In  the  sixth 
grade  this  discrimination  between  words  becomes  a  conscious 
matter,  and  much  discussion  and  testing  of  the  effect  of  a  word  or 
combination  of  words  opens  the  way  to  a  large  increase  of  dis- 
criminated words.  This  work  is  now  given  more  and  more  em- 
phasis in  the  language  period,  —  the  free  expression  of  the  child's 
personality  being  incidentally,  but  therefore  all  the  more  care- 
fully, provided  for  elsewhere.  Along  with  this  subjective  testing 
of  word  values  by  the  child's  own  meaning,  is  carried  the  testing 
of  them  by  external  facts  —  in  such  exercises  as  the  above  men- 
tioned record  of  the  new  building's  progress.  In  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades  the  critical  attitude  toward  words  has  become  more 
nearly  a  settled  interest;  and  it  is  carried  into  the  vocabulary  of 
such  relations  as  are  used  in  history,  geography,  etc.  Such  work, 
however,  must  not  exclude  more  vivid  and  concrete  work  in  word 
study,  which  is  needed  in  the  higher  grades  as  well  as  in  the  lower. 

Paragraphing  has  for  its  object  to  make  it  easy  for  the  reader 
to  grasp  the  relations  of  the  parts  of  the  writer's  thought.  Profit- 
able work  in  paragraphing,  then,  obviously  presupposes  two 
things  in  the  child;  a  conscious  social  purpose  in  his  writing,  and 
the  ability  to  detect  the  relations  of  his  own  thought.  These  two 
requisites  for  the  effective  study  of  even  the  simplest  paragraph- 
ing are  reasonably  well  developed  by  the  time  the  average  child 
reaches  the  sixth  grade  and  it  is  therefore  in  the  sixth  grade  that 
we  introduce  the  study  of  paragraphing  and  develop  the  para- 
graph sense.  It  is  important  that  definite  instruction  in  para- 
graphing be  left  to  the  grade  to  which  it  is  assigned;  but  the  nec- 
essary preparatory  work  should  be  clearly  understood  by  teachers 
of  the  grades  below,  and  carefully  done. 

(1)  The  child  should  come  to  his  work  in  paragraphing  with 
the  habit  of  considering  his  hearers.     The  gradual  transfer  of  em- 


86  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR 

phasis  in  the  language  work,  from  satisfaction  in  expression  for  its 
own  sake,  to  criticism  of  it  for  the  sake  of  others,  has  been  already 
pointed  out.  Every  teacher  should  be  conscious  of  just  how  far 
this  change  has  gone  in  each  child,  and  should  see  that  each  tend- 
ency is  properly  developed. 

(2)  To  analyze  his  own  thought  the  child  must  have  (a)  a 
sense  of  it  as  a  whole,  and  (b)  a  sense  of  relations  between  its 
parts.  He  should  come  to  his  study  of  the  paragraph  with  these 
appreciations  well  developed.  Even  in  the  first  and  second  grades 
work  should  be  done  to  make  the  child  realize  when  he  has  finished 
his  story,  explanation,  or  dream.  In  the  third  grade  the  fact  that 
what  he  says  has  a  beginning  and  an  end  should  be  brought  into 
consciousness;  he  should  learn  to  consider  the  beginning  and  to 
round  off  the  end.  Here,  too,  the  child  should  begin  to  strive  for 
continuity  of  thought  in  his  stories,  keeping  the  order  of  events 
with  conscious  care.  This  is  the  beginning  of  a  sense  of  the  rela- 
tion of  the  parts  to  each  other  and  to  the  whole.  In  the  fourth 
and  fifth  grades  the  child  may  even  begin  to  receive  much  of  his 
subject  matter  with  some  attention  to  its  organization  —  e.  g.,  he 
may  be  provided  with  an  outline  of  the  stories  told  in  history  and 
geography,  and  follow  the  topics  as  they  are  presented;  but  he 
should  not  attempt  outlining  himself  except  as  in  planning  for 
recitations  and  story  telling  he  may  find  it  useful  to  jot  down 
points  he  wishes  to  cover,  for  reference.  He  should  be  encouraged 
to  plan  what  he  wishes  to  say  first,  what  second,  etc.,  and  even  to 
select  the  most  dramatic  points  of  his  stories  for  special  emphasis, 
as  has  been  already  suggested  in  connection  with  word-study. 
This  is,  of  course,  loose  thought  organization,  and  is  easily  followed 
by  the  definite  paragraph  study  in  the  sixth  grade,  as  described 
in  the  course  of  study.  The  seventh  and  eighth  grades,  must  foster 
and  refine  the  paragraph  sense  by  constant  care  in  holding  the 
child  to  organization  of  his  recitations,  and  by  occasional  lessons 
following  the  methods  used  in  the  original  development  of  the 
subject. 

Sentence  Study  simply  carries  the  study  of  thought-organiza- 
tion into  a  smaller  unit,  hence  all  the  work  preparatory  to  the  study 
of  the  paragraph  is  preparatory  to  this  work.  In  addition,  a  sen- 
tence has  a  certain  total  effect;  it  is  flowing,  crisp,  suggestive  of 


LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR  87 


joy,  or  of  sorrow,  etc.,  in  the  mere  sound  of  it.  The  child  must 
learn  to  use  this  sound  effect  of  a  sentence  to  reinforce  the  meaning 
gathered  from  its  words. 

Analysis  shows  that  this  total  effect  is  largely  a  matter  of  musi- 
cal elements,  alliterations,  rhythms,  vowel  quantities,  etc.  It  is 
not  desirable  that  the  child  consciously  attend  to  these  matters  at 
any  period  in  the  grades,  but  the  teachers  of  all  grades  should  un- 
derstand them  clearly,  and  see  to  it  that  the  child's  ear  is  trained 
to  catch  the  effect,  though  he  does  not  analyze  its  causes. 

Reading  of  poetry  and  beautiful  prose,  searching  for  the 
way  of  saying  things  which  will  make  a  dramatization  the 
most  effective,  writing  simple  poems  in  grades  where  such 
work  is  profitable  for  other  reasons,  arc  valuable  in  such 
training.  Moreover,  since  to  change  a  sentence  form  is  always 
to  change  its  musical  qualities,  all  v/ork  which  multiplies  the  num- 
ber of  ways  a  child  may  say  a  thing,  helps  prepare  him  for  his  sen- 
tence work.  As  early  as  the  third  grade  it  is  profitable  to  devote 
an  occasional  lesson  to  drill  in  varying  the  form  of  a  sentence-ele- 
ment; e.  g.,  —  the  color  of  the  apple,  the  apple's  color.  As  the 
vocabulary  work  becomes  more  critical,  it  merges  by  insensible 
degrees  into  the  sentence  work,  since  the  place  of  a  word  in  the  sen- 
tence is  often  more  important  in  determining  values  than  is  the 
word  chosen.  Often,  too,  the  vocabulary  work  deals  with  phrases 
and  clauses  instead  of  single  words,  thus  involving  tlie  whole  sen- 
tence. 

Punctuation  should  be  taught  as  an  integral  part  of  written 
expression;  as  a  tool  to  make  the  written  work  easy  to  read.  This 
means  that  only  the  simplest  problems  in  punctuation  should  be 
handled  in  the  lower  grades.  The  capital  and  period  should  be 
given  with  the  first  written  work;  but  it  is  to  be  noticed  that  since 
the  constant  correct  use  of  the  period  means  that  a  child  is  con- 
scious of  the  thought  as  a  separate  unit,  it  is  not  a  matter  of  dis- 
couragement if  he  is  slow  to  master  it.  We  must  expect  both  the 
backward  child  and  the  child  of  very  rich  experience  to  be  slow 
to  become  perfect  in  this  matter.  A  good  drill  in  helping  children 
to  feel  the  limits  of  a  sentence  is  to  read  interesting  stories,  having 
them  make  some  sign  when  the  sentence-end  is  reached.  Quota- 
tions may  be  drilled  upon  in  the  same  manner.  Commas  are  not 
much  needed  before  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades,  when  their  use  re- 


88  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR 

quires  some  drill,  being  presented  always  as  a  means  of  marking 
off  units  of  thought  or  of  preventing  misapprehensions.  Para- 
graph indentation  should  be  handled  as  one  sort  of  punctuation, 
since  its  purpose  is  just  that  of  the  punctuation  marks. 

The  apportionment  of  subject  matter  among  our  grades  is 
controlled  by  the  principles  set  forth  above.  If  effective  language 
work  is  to  reflect  the  child  as  he  actually  is,  it  is  manifestly  useless 
to  give  him  any  technical  work  which  the  kind  of  content  compos- 
ing his  real  self  does  not  require  for  its  embodiment  in  words. 
There  is  no  value  for  him  in  a  given  list  of  words  before  his  content 
demands  them,  or  in  punctuation  in  advance  of  the  needs  of  his 
own  thought,  or  in  paragraphing  before  his  thought  begins  to  take 
on  articulations.  Our  present  apportionment  we  believe  to  be 
sound  in  its  large  divisions  and  we  are  testing  its  every  detail  with 
earnest  watchfulness.  Readjustments  of  detail  will  be  made 
wherever  and  whenever  practical  v.-ork  shows  they  are  needed, 
and  there  will  ah\ays  be  elasticity  in  our  course,  that  each  teacher 
may  fit  his  work  to  the  personnel  of  the  class  he  is    handling. 

The  work  which  fills  the  language  hour  in  the  first  and  second 
divisions  can  not  always  be  called  language  v.'ork,  if  language  work 
be  defined  as  direct  effort  to  improve  the  technique  of  expression 
in  words;  but  as  a  preparation  for  later  more  technical  work  it  is 
most  essential.     All  our  language  v/ork  falls  under  two  heads : 

Work  to  bring  to  usable  definiteness  the  child's  experience. 
It  is  not  always  in  words  that  expression  is  reached.  At  first  the 
teacher  is  often  satisfied  if  the  content  can  be  made  definite  enough 
to  be  expressed  vividly  in  gesture  or  in  the  more  complex  action 
of  dramatization;  or  in  line  and  color  thru  pictures;  or  in  form 
thni  plastic  material ;  or  in  rhythm  and  melody  thru  song.  As  the 
child  advances,  words  gradually  become  the  chosen  medium  of 
expression  in  the  language  hour  until  by  the  time  he  has  entered 
the  fourth  or  fifth  grade  the  various  forms  of  expression  are  being 
trained  separately.  The  language  teacher  should  never  forget, 
however,  that  the  sister  studies  of  dramatization,  drawing,  music 
and  illustrative  manual  work  may  be  called  in  at  any  time  help  is 
needed  in  making  the  child's  content  definite  and  vivid. 

Work  to  form  literary  likings  and  habits.  The  child  finds  in 
literature  the  great  store  house  from  which  he  can  gather  beauti- 
ful words  and  forms.     He  cannot  too  earlv  begin  his  training  in 


LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR  89 


sensitiveness  to  its  harmonies  and  proportions  by  continual  con- 
tact with  it.  The  literature  given  him  must  be  beautiful  in  form, 
but  must  deal  with  the  ideas  and  interests  of  his  own  world.  Just 
as  truly  as  literature  beyond  the  scope  of  his  nature  is  powerless 
as  a  formative  influence  on  his  character,  it  is  useless  as  a  fonnative 
influence  on  his  expression.  He  will  not  absorb  beautiful  fonns 
unless  they  clothe  ideas  for  which  he  seeks  expression. 

ir.  SUBJECT  MATTER 

FIRST  DIVISION- 

Make  definite  the  child's  direct  experience,  interests,  opinions, 
observations  thru 

a.  Conversations  dealing  with  familiar,  seasonable,  and  popular 
topics,  suggested  by  special  days,  passing  objects  and  events 
of  popular  interest,  games,  home  occupations,  pets,  etc. 

b.  Free  accounts  of  experiences,  fancies;  descriptions  of  things  of 
interest.  Stir  the  child  to  amuse  his  mates  with  a  funny 
story,  or  to  interest  them  with  an  exciting  one,  or  to  furnish 
helpful  information. 

c.  Reproduction  of  experiences  and  objects  of  interest  in  color, 
clay,  etc. 

d.  Letters  to  mothers,  to  absent  school  mates,  to  Santa  Claus,  etc. 

e.  Daily  record  of  the  weather. 

Make  definite  the  wider  experiences  offered  thru  songs,  poems 
and  stories  by  means  of  conversations,  oral  reproductions,  drama- 
tization, illustration  thru  clay  modeling,  sand  table  work,  drawing, 
painting,  paper  cutting,  and  construction. 

Note:  Teach  capitalization,  use  of  the  period,  interrogation 
point,  exclamation  point,  quotation  marks,  and  a  simple  letter 
heading  and  closing  as  needed. 

Train  the  children  toward  literary  taste  thru  stories  clothed 
in  literary  form  by  the  teller,  and  thru  poems,  memorized  exactly. 
Suggestive  list  of  stories  and  poems. 

Jack  and  Jill,  Little  Boy  Blue,  Baa  Baa  Black  Sliecp.  Ilumpty 
Dumpty,  Little  Bo  Peep,  Hickory  Dickory  Dock,  Mother 
Goose;  A  Good  Play,  My  Shadow,  Happy  Tlimight,  The  Wind, 
The  Swing,  Winter  Time,  My  Ship  and  I.  Autumn  Fires.  Stev- 


90  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR 

enson;  The  Tree,  Bjornson;  Seven  Times  One,  Jean  Ingelow; 
The  Wind,  Christmas  Carol,  Christina  Rossetti;  Winter,  Tenny- 
son; Ariel's  Song,  Shakespeare;  The  Baby,  George  Macdonald; 
Lines  Written  in  March,  Wordsworth;  Hiawatha's  Childhood, 
Hiawatha's  Sailing,  Longfellow. 

Suggestive  list  of  stories  for  adaptation. 

Little  Red  Riding  Hood,  The  Elves  and  the  Shoemaker, 
Grimm;  The  Ugly  Duckling,  The  Little  Match  Girl,  Anderson; 
The  Three  Bears,  The  Three  Pigs,  Jacobs;  The  Story  of  the 
First  Woodpecker,  Why  the  Swallow's  Tail  is  Forked,  Why  the 
Rabbit  is  Timid,  Florence  Holbrook;  The  Childhood  of  Ji-Shib, 
A.  E.  Jenks;  The  Pomegranate  Seeds,  The  Golden  Touch,  The 
Miraculous  Pitcher,  The  Paradise  of  Children,  Hawthorne; 
The  Vision  of  Dante,  Cedric,  Elizabeth  Harrison;  Raggylug, 
Thompson-Seaton;  The  Pig  Brother,  The  Great  Feast,  Laura 
E.  Richards;  The  Mouse  and  the  Moonbeam,  The  Coming  of 
the  Prince,  Eugene  Field. 

References : — 

How  to  Tell  Stories  to  Children,  Sara  Cone  Bryant;  Text  Book 
of  Art  Education,  (for  modeling  subjects,  etc.) ;  Teachers'  Col- 
lege Record,  January  1906,  Discussion  of  Literature,  p.  59; 
In  the  Child's  World,  Emilie  Poulsson;  Three  Years  with  the 
Poets,  Bertha  Hazard ;  For  the  Children's  Hour,  Bailey  &  Lewis. 

SECOND  DIVISION 

The  same  outline  as  for  the  first  division  is  used,  with  the  nec- 
essary additions  due  to  the  widening  of  the  children's  experience 
thru  the  study  of  geography,  history,  and  pictures. 

The  oral  work  is  kept  in  excess  of  written ;  original  poems  and 
songs,  and  written  reproductions  are  called  for.  In  this  division 
the  emphasis  is  placed  on  arrangement  and  completeness  of  thought. 
Habits  of  correct  speech  are  formed,  and  errors  are  corrected, 
when  necessary,  thru  definite  exercises  and  games  which  give  drill, 
as  e.  g.  on  irregular  verbs. 
Suggestive  list  of  poems  and  stories  arranged  in  the  order  of  the 

seasons. 

Fall. 

September,    Helen   Hunt   Jackson;   The   Kitten   and   the 


LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR  91 

Falling  Leaves,  Wordsworth;  Little  Orphant  Annie,  James 
W.  Riley;  The  Huskers,  Whittier;  Stories  of  the  Pilgrims 
—  to  be  adapted  by  the  teacher  from  (1)  Colonial  Chil- 
dren, Pratt;  (2)  History  of  Plymouth  Plantation,  Gover- 
nor Bradford;  (3)  Pilgrims  and  Puritans,  Nina  Moore. 
Winter. 

Everywhere  Christmas,  Brooks;  While  Shepherds 
Watched,  Margaret  Deland;  Why  Do  Bells  for  Christmas 
Ring,  Eugene  Field;  'Twas  the  Night  Before  Christmas, 
Moore;  Christmas  Bells,  H.  W.  Longfellow;  The  Old  Bell, 
Andrea  Hofer;  The  Sparrows,  Celia  Thaxter;  Piccola, 
Celia  Thaxter ;  Story  of  Christmas  in  England  —  to  be 
adapted  by  the  teacher  from  Washington  Irving's  de- 
scription of  same;  Tiny  Tim,  Dickens  —  adapted  by  Ella 
B.  Keck;  The  First  Snowfall,  Lowell;  Little  Red  Riding 
Hood,  Whittier;  Lincoln  Stories  —  to  be  adapted  by  the 
teacher  from  (1)  Abraham  Lincoln,  Baldwin;  (2)  Lincoln 
in  Story,  Silas  G.  Pratt;  George  Washington  Stories  —  to 
be  adapted  by  the  teacher  from  "George  Washington," 
Horace  E.  Scudder. 
Spring. 

The  Robin,  The  Wind  Flower,  Lucy  Larcom;  The  Scare- 
crow, Celia  Thaxter. 
Suggestive  list  of  books  which  contain  excellent  stories. 

Uncle  Remus,  Joel  C.  Harris;  Wagner  Opera  Stories,  Grace  E. 
Barber;  Just  So  Stories,  Kipling;  Jungle  Stories,  Books  I 
and  II,  Kipling;  Lobo,  Rag,  and  Vixen,  Ernest  Seaton- 
Thompson;  Story  Hour,  Kate  Douglas  Wiggin;  Bible  Stories, 
Richard  Moulton;  Fairy  Tales  —  Indian,  Joseph  Jacobs. 
References  for  suggestions  as  to  method  and  inspiration  to  the 
teachers. 

How  to  Tell  Stories  to  Children,  Sara  Cone  Bryant;  Value  of 
Hero  Stories,  Helen  Ford  Staples;  The  Dramatic  in  Education, 
El.  Sch.  T'r,  Vol.  IV. 

THIRD  DIVISION 

The  work  in  the  third  division  differs  from  that  in  the  earlier 
divisions  rather  in  proportion  than  in  spirit.     The  chief  aim  of  the 


92  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR 

work  is  still  to  bring  definiteness  and  reality  to  the  child's  content 
and  nurture  the  impulse  to  share  his  real  interests  freely. 

We  continue  to  use  (1)  free  accounts  of  experiences,  fancies; 
discussions  of  ideals  and  opinions;  descriptions  of  objects,  places  of 
interest,  etc.;  explanations  of  games  and  other  activities.  (2)  Il- 
lustrative stories,  by  both  teacher  and  child.  (3)  Written  accounts 
of  familiar  or  interesting  objects,  events,  etc.  (4)  Poems  concern- 
ing matters  of  vital  interest  and  pleasure  to  the  child.  (5)  Letters 
to  absent  mates,  invitations  and  acceptances  which  are  actually 
sent,  requests  for  folders,  or  other  information  of  use  in  other 
studies,  etc. 

FOURTH  DIVISION 

In  the  fourth  division  the  child's  need  of  sharing  exactly  his 
interests  opens  the  way  to  formal  (though  never  mechanical)  work. 
Here  he  begins  to  gather  his  history  and  geography  from  organized 
texts,  and  to  think  with  some  rough  groupings  and  sense  of  rela- 
tions, and  therefore  the  foundation  topic  of  the  language  work  is 
the  paragraph.  The  increasing  complexity  of  the  child's  thought 
calls  for  more  careful  punctuation  in  his  written  expression,  and 
study  is  made  of  the  use  of  the  comma,  and  of  the  semi-colon  in 
individual  cases.  The  child's  stock  of  ideas  and  interests  is  also 
so  enriched  that  continual  effort  must  be  expended  on  giving  him 
needed  words  to  keep  pace  with  it.  Vocabulary  work,  therefore, 
assumes  great  importance. 

In  this  work  on  paragraphing,  punctuation,  and  vocabulary 
we  use  (1)  The  child's  own  experiences  —  the  things  that  are  of 
real  interest  to  the  child;  games,  contests,  excursions  planned  for 
and  enjoyed  in  common  by  the  class;  infonnation  which  part  pos- 
sess and  the  others  are  really  desirous  of;  discussions  of  matters  to 
be  decided  by  the  class  for  a  real  event;  letters  to  be  sent  to  real 
people.  All  subjects  should  lend  themselves  to  easy  organization 
along  large  lines.  (2)  The  wider  experiences  the  school  brings  him 
—  reproductions,  and  cuttings  of  literature,  organization  and  dis- 
cussions of  the  subject  matter  of  his  other  studies.  (3)  Creative 
imagination  —  problems  to  be  worked  out  thru  imaginary  scenes, 
situations,   actions,  stories  explanatory  of  pictures,  scenes  in  far 


LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR  93 

countries,  to  be  constructed  from  material  supplied  in  the  geogra- 
phy lessons,  narrations  expanding  events  touched  upon  brieflv  in 
the  history  and  literature  lessons. 

Paragraphing:  See  that  to  the  child  paragraphing  is  a  matter 
of  real  thought  division  not  of  external  form.  The  teacher  must 
constantly  guard  against  two  things:  she  must  not  try  to  induce  a 
complexity  of  organization  natural  to  her,  but  beyond  the  power 
of  the  child;  and  she  must  not  insist  on  her  own  organization,  even 
on  large  lines.  The  child  can  think  only  in  large  divisions;  if  she 
tries  to  refine  his  paragraphing  he  will  feel  each  separate  thought 
or  fact  by  itself  which  is  the  very  reverse  of  the  organization  she 
seeks  to  induce.  He  must  be  permitted  to  reflect  his  own  divisions 
in  order  that  his  own  power  to  organize  may  grow.  He  will  not 
gain  individual  power  by  being  told  where  to  indent.  Class  dis- 
cussion over  the  paragraphing  is  very  valuable,  as  the  children's 
minds  are  nearly  on  the  same  plane  and  they  can  therefore  give 
and  take  organization  from  each  other  effectively.  The  following 
exercises  are  suggestive  of  the  general  method  to  be  followed  in 
working  on  the  child's  paragraph  instinct: 

1.  Let  the  class  read  together  the  advance  history  lesson, 
deciding  on  the  "big  thought"  of  the  whole  lesson  and  of  each  para- 
graph in  the  lesson.  Place  the  topics  on  the  board,  and  have  the 
recitations  made  from  it  next  day.  Great  stress  should  be  laid  in 
recitation  on  strict  adherence  to  topic,  on  the  one  hand,  and  on 
completeness  of  any  topic,  on  the  other.  Later,  the  whole  lesson 
may  be  re-grouped  around  a  new  focus;  tliis  should  not  be  done 
until  the  children  readily  grasp  the  leading  thouglit  of  clearly  para- 
graphed text. 

2.  Let  the  class  find  new  titles  for  the  reading  lesson.  Test 
each  suggested  title  by  examination  of  the  lesson,  paragraph  by 
paragraph,  condensing  each  to  a  single  statement. 

3.  Give  the  children  hectographed  sheets,  containing  poems 
or  prose  units  without  indentation.  Let  them  give  a  title  and  in- 
dent according  to  the  thought  divisions.  Study  the  author's  para- 
graphing of  the  same,  with  free  discussion.  The  author  may  not 
have  made  the  only  possible  grouping.  For  this  should  be  used 
material  clearly  falling  into  large  divisions. 

4.  Study  objects  for  description,  narration  and  sucli  simple 
argument  as  the  children  use,  and  have  the  class  settle  on  two  or 


94 


LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR 


three  large  divisions;  then  examine  detail  of  description  and  note 
which  division  claims  each.  Do  not  complete  an  intricate  outline 
for  them  to  follow. 

5.  Put  before  the  children  a  broad  topic  clearly  organized, 
and  let  them  choose  stories  from  any  part  of  it.  Hold  the  story 
in  its  place  in  the  organization  by  constant  references  to  the  whole 
as  it  is  told.  Put  the  outline  on  the  board  at  first.  Later  make 
sure  that  they  hold  it  mentally,  e.  g. 

Why  I  like  my  summer  camp. 

I.  It  is  interesting. 

A.  Fun  on  land. 

(1)  Picnics 

(2)  Plays 

(3)  Stories  around  the  bonfire. 

B.  Fun  on  the  water. 

(1)  Sailing 

(1)  At  camp. 

(2)  On  a  cruise.      (2nd  story  chosen.) 

(2)  Bathing. 

(1)  Games  in  the  water. 

(2)  Tricks    played   on   each    other.      (1st   story 
chosen.) 

(3)  Practice  which  is  valuable. 

II.  It  is  beautiful. 

A.  The  island. 

(1)  Trees 

(2)  Wild  flowers. 

(3)  Tents 

(4)  Wild  animals. 

B.  The  waters. 

(1)  Our  bay 

(2)  The  channel 

(3)  Other  island  camps. 

6.  Undertake  a  joint  enterprise;  a  play,  a  picnic,  an  enter- 
tainment, the  construction  of  needed  apparatus.  Make  the  plans 
in  full,  and  carry  them  out  with  constant  reference  to  the  whole. 
This  requires  the  children  to  think  the  organization  of  the  whole 
on  what  ever  detail  they  are  working. 

When   the    children    do    actually   organize   their   material   in 


(3rd  story  chosen.) 
(4th  story  chosen.) 


LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR  95 


large  divisions,  it  will  yet  be  necessary  to  drill  them  on  indentation 
to  reflect  the  same.  The  important  thing  in  this  drill,  as  in  all  for- 
mal work,  is  that  the  indentation  be  kept  before  them  always  as  a 
sign  of  a  thing  that  actually  exists  in  tlieir  own  minds,  not  as  a 
thing  of  value  in  itself.  For  example,  let  a  child  who  has  written 
on  "The  Adventures  of  One  Day."  hold  his  paper  before  the  class 
for  inspection, with  the  question:  "How  many  adventures?"  If  the 
reading  of  the  story  does  not  corroborate  the  decision  the  class 
made  from  his  indentations,  he  must  remodel  his  work.  Or  let 
a  child  place  his  list  of  large  topics  on  the  board,  and  challenge 
others  to  find  any  topic  in  his  paper  by  inspection.  In  more  ad- 
vanced work  let  him  read  a  sentence  and  challenge  others  to 
point  to  its  place  by  noting  under  what  topic  it  should  occur.  If 
the  one  challenged  misplaces  it  he  loses;  but  if  he  can  prove  that 
it  should  have  been  under  the  topic  he  chose,  the  reader  loses. 
Children  preparing  work  with  such  a  game  in  view  organize  their 
work  with  eager  care.  Numerous  variations  of  such  exercises  will 
occur  to  any  teacher  working  along  thought  lines. 

Punctuation:  Keep  up  a  steady  pressure  for  the  correct  use 
of  the  period,  interrogation  and  exclamation  points,  capitals,  and 
quotation  marks.  All  members  of  the  class  should  begin  to  use 
the  comma  intelligently;  to  separate  the  word  of  address  from  the 
rest  of  the  sentence,  to  separate  words  in  a  series,  to  separate  ex- 
planatory phrases  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence.  An  occasional 
class  discussion  as  to  the  ways  to  bring  out  meanings  should  be 
added  to  constant  suggestive  questioning  of  individuals.  A  few 
children  will  begin  to  need  the  semi-colon;  supply  it  individually. 
The  following  exercises  may  serve  as  an  example  of  drill  work  in 
punctuation : 

(1)  Read  a  selection  with  short  sentences  to  the  class.  Have 
the  pupils  count  the  number  of  sentences  read.  This  helps  to  build 
up  the  idea  of  a  sentence  unit,  and  teaches  the  use  of  the  period. 

(2)  Read  to  the  class  sentences  containing  words  in  a  series, 
such  as.  The  grocer  sells  tea,  coflfee,  sugar,  cookies,  and  flour. 
How  many  things  does  he  sell? 

Similar  sentences  are  written  on  the  board  and  the  class  is  re- 
quired to  separate  the  different  things  from  each  other.  Make  the 
need  for  the  commas  felt,  before  drilling  on  their  use. 

Vocabulary:     Watch  every  opportunity  to  enrich  the  child's 


96  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR 


store  of  forcible  words.  Whole  lessons  will  be  required  to  be  de- 
voted entirely  to  word  gathering.  Once  get  the  children  eager  to 
express  a  definite  idea  and  they  absorb  new  words  which  will  aid 
them  therein,  very  rapidly.  In  general  the  best  source  for  new 
words  is  the  class.  Whenever  a  need  for  words  is  felt,  make  a 
class  list ;  it  is  astonishing  how  rich  is  the  combined  vocabulary  of 
a  class  whose  individual  members  are  word-poor.  The  teacher 
may  add  such  as  she  desires  them  to  add  to  their  stock;  but  they 
take  from  each  other  most  readily.  It  is  valuable  to  read  some 
bit  of  literature  gemmed  with  the  sort  of  words  they  will  need, 
just  before  the  task  in  composition  is  set  them.  The  main  thing  is 
to  give  thein  their  new  words  in  response  to  a  definite  need;  this 
makes  them  available  for  expression.  For  the  most  part  it  will 
be  found  that  sufficient  opportunity  for  word-drill  occurs  thus  in 
connection  with  other  lines  of  progress,  but  there  are  times  when 
whole  lessons  are  needed  for  vocabulary  work.  Then  the  thing  to 
be  expressed  should  be  very  definite  and  stimulating,  and,  very 
often,  should  be  present  for  comparison.  Take  a  good  copy  of 
Rosa  Bonheur's  Lion,  and  try  to  get  words  describing  the  expres- 
sion; or  mount  a  milkweed  stalk  and  set  the  children  trying  to 
picture  it  in  words;  examine  a  winged  Mercury,  and  the  children's 
vocabulary  will  multiply  in  certain  directions,  wonderfully;  com- 
pete to  see  who  can,  with  a  limited  number  of  words  make  a  fire 
brightest',  a  sunset  most  delicate,  a  man  angriest,  a  curve  most 
graceful,  a  boy  most  courageous,  a  mountain  ruggedest  and  so  on. 
This  sort  of  work  should  be  less  frequent  than  exercises  where  ex- 
travagance is  checked  by  the  presence  of  the  thing  described,  but 
it  is  most  valuable  in  multiplying  new  words.  The  surroundings 
and  interests  of  any  class  will  furnish  a  thoughtful  teacher  with 
innumerable  openings  for  such  exercises. 

FIFTH  DIVISION 

The  fifth  division  carries  the  paragraphing,  punctuation  and 
word-study  to  finer  distinctions,  following  the  evolution  of  the 
child's  content,  but  a  new  work  is  to  be  definitely  begun.  The 
child's  thought  is  by  this  time  highly  complex,  and  is  also  frequently 
compounded  in  all  of  the  four  relations  (copulative,  adversative, 
casual,  alternative),  but  his  expression  is  apt  to  be  stiff  and  there- 


LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR  97 


fore  false  to  his  content  for  lack  of  flexible  sentence  fonn.  The 
foundation  of  the  language  work  in  ihe  fifth  division  is  therefore 
sentence  study. 

Paragraphing :  Keep  up  a  steady  pressure  for  intelligent  para- 
graphing. Study  the  work  in  the  fourth  division  and  apply  the 
same  methods  in  reviews,  stories,  and  discussion.  To  hold  the  class 
to  the  performance  of  its  best  in  paragraph  fonn,  will  require  that 
the  teacher  bear  the  principles  of  paragraph  work  in  mind  in  all 
presentations  and  discussions,  rather  than  that  much  definite  para- 
graph work  be  done  in  class. 

Punctuation:  Keep  up  a  steady  pressure  for  the  correct  use^ 
of  the  period,  exclamation  and  interrogation  points,  comma,  capi- 
tals and  quotation  marks.  Occasional  class  discussion  of  a  passage 
will  be  valuable  in  encouraging  individual  and  intelligent  punctua- 
tion, but  do  most  of  it  by  suggestive  questioning  of  individuals  as 
to  the  meaning  of  poorly  punctuated  passages.  Watch  to  see 
which  children  really  need  the  semi-colon. 

Vocabulary:     See  fourth  division. 

Sentence  work:  Work  definitely  to  make  the  ciiild's  sentence 
form  flexible  and  responsive. 

(a)  Do  definite  work  for  each  variety  of  the  complex  sen- 
tence in  turn ;  introduce  clauses  of  time  thru  a  narrative  demanding 
them;  clauses  of  place  thru  description  denianding  correlation  in 
space;  clauses  of  cause,  manner,  degree,  concession  and  so  on,  in 
like  manner,  thru  the  pressure  of  a  subject  matter  exacting  them. 
Most  of  the  constructions  of  the  simple  sentence  will  evolve  along 
with  these.  Make  the  primary  pressure  not  for  a  given  fomi,  but 
for  the  expression  of  an  idea  which  finds  that  form  useful.  Thus 
every  set  of  lessons  will  develop  not  the  one  form  aimed  at,  but  a 
group  of  parallel  constructions  interchangeably  useful  in  expressing 
the  sort  of  thought  relationship  which  furnishes  the  pressure. 

(b)  Attack  the  compound  sentence  thru  its  adversative  form ; 
begin  by  sharpening  the  child's  sense  of  contrast,  and  rousing  his 
perception  of  the  contradictory  elements  in  things  about  him  and 
of  the  co-existence  of  contradictory  facts.  When  he  is  sensitive  to 
contrast  he  will  be  easily  goaded  into  using  the  various  forms  of  the 
adversative  sentence  by  the  exactions  of  a  content  filled  with  these 
contradictory  elements.  Use  the  same  method  to  exercise  him  in 
compounding  sentences  copulatively,  casually,  and  alternatively. 


98  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR 

(c)  Do  continual  work  in  sentence  response.  The  aim  of  this 
work  is  to  give  the  child  instinctive  skill  in  adapting  his  form  to 
his  thought.  Its  object  is  flexibility;  it  seeks  to  render  the  fornis 
in  his  possession  mobile  and  swiftly  obedient. 

For  drill  and  review  use: 

(a)  Cuttings  of  bits  of  literature  too  long  to  be  presented  to  the 
class  as  a  whole. 

(b)  Expansions  of  scenes  left  weak  or  obscure  in  literature  in 
which  the  children  are  thoroly  interested. 

(c)  Organizations, expansions,  discussions  from  the  subject  matter 
of  other  studies. 

(d)  Literary  entertainments  offered  to  another  class,  using  lately 
acquired  material  as  subject  matter:  e.  g.  India;  The  first 
year  of  the  Revolution,  etc.  The  children  discover  dramatic 
and  stimulating  elements  in  such  subjects  unsuspected  by 
them  until  they  attempt  to  make  it  interesting  to  another  class. 

SIXTH  DIVISION 

No  outline  can  at  present  be  given  since  the  work  in  the  sixth 
division  is  being  reconstructed  and  tested.  The  two  objects  in 
view  are: 

(1)  Introduction  of  simple  work  in  thought  analysis. 

(2)  Selection  of  what  is  felt  to  be  essential  to  any  real  mas- 
tery of  language.  In  technical  grammar  much  that  is  interesting 
and  not  without  value  is  being  sacrificed  to  what  seems  relatively 
most  important.     By  this  means  we  hope  to  make  our  work  real. 

The  series  of  lessons  now  being  tested  in  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades  we  hope  will  result  in  a  distinct  contribution  to  the 
teaching  of  language  and  grammar.  An  outline  of  the  subject 
matter  covered  with  a  description  of  each  lesson  as  actually  taught, 
is  in  preparation. 

Finding  that  work  in  both  grammar  and  composition  in  the 
review  class  burdens  the  child,  we  at  present  omit  grammar  in  that 
grade  for  we  believe  composition  to  be  the  more  helpful  of  the  two 
in  aiding  the  child  to  get  control  of  his  mental  life. 


LITERATURE  AND  READING  99 


LITERATURE  AND  READING 

I.  INTRODUCTION 

Because  literature  and  reading  are  so  closely  related  and  be- 
cause space  is  so  limited,  it  has  seemed  best  to  treat  these  two  sub- 
jects together  even  though  something  might  be  gained  by  giving 
each  a  separate  treatment. 

Literature  as  a  school  subject  consists  in  teaching  children  to 
appreciate  the  meaning  of  what  they  hear  and  read.  Reading 
consists  in  teaching  children  to  get  meaning  from  written  or  printed 
language  and  to  communicate  this  meaning  to  others  in  the  words 
of  the  author.  A  start  in  each  of  these  should  precede  school  life. 
Literature  should  begin  for  the  child  in  his  hearing  and  enjoying 
good  stories  told  to  him ;  reading  should  begin  in  his  looking  at  the 
painted  page  while  stories  are  being  read  to  him.  If  the  home  life 
or  kindergarten  does  not  give  the  children  plenty  of  stories  in  both 
of  these  ways,  the  first  school  problem  is  to  supply  this  lack,  be- 
cause, without  this  foundation,  progress  in  literature  and  in  reading 
will  be  much  delayed  if  not  perverted. 

These  two  subjects  should  be  taught  daily  in  school  work, 
placing  an  emphasis  on  the  one  or  on  the  other  according  to  the 
needs  of  the  class  or  of  individuals.  Learning  to  read  should  have 
a  place  in  the  program  in  every  grade,  more  and  more  difficult 
matter  being  chosen  from  year  to  year. 

Reading,  as  suggested  in  the  definition  given  above,  is  of  two 
kinds,  silent  and  expressive.  These  differ  chiefly  in  the  emphasis 
which  each  places  on  the  different  processes  involved  in  reading. 
Silent  reading  emphasizes  those  processes  which  are  more  directly 
concerned  in  getting  the  meaning  of  what  is  read,  while  expressive 
reading  brings  into  prominence  those  processes  by  which  the  mean- 
ing of  what  is  read  is  communicated  to  others  in  the  words  of  the 
author.  Silent  reading  presents  two  varieties;  reading  to  acquire 
a  knowledge  of  facts  and  reading  to  appreciate  values.  Reading  for 
facts  has  a  proper  place  in  school  work,  and  it  should  gradually  be 


100  LITERATURE  AND  READING 

introduced  as  the  children  develop  the  power  to  discriminate  be-' 
tween  fact  and  fancy.  But  reading  to  appreciate  is  the  more  im- 
portant in  elementar}^  school  work.  If  the  material  read  has  real 
literary  worth  then  the  reading  lesson  is  at  the  same  time  a  lesson 
in  literature.  Expressive  reading  presents  three  chief  varieties: 
(1)  natural,  (2)  artificial,  (3)  purposive.  Expressive  reading  is 
natural  when  the  foi*ms  of  expression  arise  without  conscious  direc- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  reader.  It  is  artificial,  or  mechanical,  when 
the  reader  decides  what  forms  of  expression  he  will  use  and  then 
produces  these  forms  consciously.  It  is  purposive  when  the  reader 
devotes  his  powers  of  thought  and  expression  to  the  securing  of 
some  result  in  the  minds  of  others. 

Reading  for  meaning  is  the  great  problem  in  the  reading  lesson 
in  the  early  grades.  To  test  the  suctess  of  a  child  in  getting  the 
meaning  he  should  be  required  to  give  in  his  own  words  an  accurate 
and  full  account  of  what  he  has  read  and  what  it  means,  and  some- 
times to  act  out  the  thought.  In  this  way  a  foundation  may  be 
laid  for  expressive  reading.  Story  telling  and  reciting  should  also 
be  prominent  in  early  school  work,  both  because  of  their  own  value 
and  because  they  complete  the  foundation  for  expressive  reading. 
The  time  to  begin  definite  work  in  expressive  reading  is  when  the 
children  can  keep  the  meaning  and  the  forms  of  thought  clearly 
before  their  minds  and  at  the  same  time  express  the  meaning  in 
the  words  of  another.  The  teacher's  criterion  should  now  be  the 
adequacy  with  which  the  children  communicate  their  meanings  to 
others  rather  than  the  closeness  of  their  conformity  to  the  words  of 
the  author.  As  the  children  grow  older  a  closer  conformity  should 
be  required. 

The  separation  of  the  lesson  in  expressive  reading  from  that 
in  silent  reading  is  very  important.  The  success  of  each  depends 
upon  its  having,  for  the  time  being,,  full  swing  in  the  mind.  One 
strong  reason  for  this  separation  is  because  more  difficult  matter 
should  be  used  in  silent  reading  than  can  be  successfully  handled 
in  expressive  reading. 

To  teach  silent  reading  and  literature  the  teacher  needs  (1)  a 
wide  range  of  experience  in  interpreting  and  appreciating  good 
literature  and  (2)  a  thoro  knowledge  of  the  pedagogy  of  reading 
and  literature. 

To  teach  expressive  reading  the  teacher  needs  to  knoAv:  (1) 


LITERATURE  AND  READING  101 


wliat  fonns  of  expression  should  be  most  approved;  (2)  what  fomis 
of  mental  action  correspond  to  the  approved  forms  of  expression; 
(3)  how  the  experiences  of  the  children  may  be  so  controlled  as  to 
secure  these  best  forms  of  thought  and  expression.  (1)  The  best 
forms  of  expression  are  those  which  most  fully  and  effectively  re- 
veal the  child's  meaning.  There  is  no  external  system  of  forms  to 
which  the  child  must  conform  in  his  expression.  (2)  The  best 
forms  of  mental  action  are  those  which  are  suggested  by  extracts 
from  good  literature  when  chosen  with  reference  to  the  stage  of 
development  of  the  cliildren.  (3)  The  best  ways  of  controlling  the 
child's  experience  are  the  following:  a.  By  securing  good  work 
in  silent  reading,  i.  e.,  by  helping  the  child  to  get  full,  deep  and 
stirring  meanings  from  what  he  reads,  b.  By  giving  the  child 
a  social  situation  which  invites  his  best  efforts,  i.  e.,  setting  him 
the  problem  of  securing  some  important  result  in  the  minds  of 
those  present,  c.  By  making  suggestions  to  help  the  children  in 
using  the  different  methods  of  learning  as  applied  to  expressive 
reading. 

A  mind  full  of  thought  and  a  good  social  situation  are  both  in- 
dispensable to  good  expression  but  not  adequate  to  the  best  re- 
sults. The  teacher  must  suggest  good  methods  of  perfecting  the 
expression. 

What  is  needed  in  the  pedagogy  of  reading  is  (1)  a  psychology 
giving  a  detailed  treatment  of  the  processes  involved  in  reading 
and  in  learning  to  read,  (2)  a  full  and  accurate  statement  of  the 
stages  of  development  in  learning  to  read,  (3)  a  list  of  carefully 
selected  extracts  from  good  literature  adapted  to  each  of  these 
stages,  and  (4)  an  adequate  report  on  the  methods  which  teachers 
may  use  in  teaching  reading.  A  good  beginning  has  been  made 
in  the  first  of  these  by  E.  B.  Huey  in  his  Psychology  and  Pedagogy 
of  Reading,  and  in  the  third  by  C.  W.  Emerson  in  his  Evolution  of 
Expression.  For  the  other  two  no  satisfactory  references  can  be 
given. 

The  psychology  of  reading  offers  many  conclusions,  of  which 
the  more  important  for  the  teacher  of  reading  are  the  following: 

1.      The  eyes  move  from  left  to  right  in  a  series  of  short,  quick 
movements  and  pauses. 


102 


LITERATURE  AND  READING 


2.  There  are  from  three  to  six  pauses  in  a  line  of  ordinary  length. 

3.  The  mind  does  its  perceiving  during  the  pauses. 

4.  The  units  in  perceiving  are  neither  the  letters,  the  syllables, 
nor  the  words,  but  about  ten  letter  spaces. 

5.  Perception  in  reading  depends  upon  slight  visual  cues  (domi- 
nant letters  usually)  and  it  pays  little  attention  to  the  division 
of  the  language  into  words. 

6.  The  mind  completes  its  perception  of  the  language  by  an  ap- 
perceptive filling  out  of  the  words  and  phrases  suggested  by 
the  visual  and  vocal  cues. 

7.  Short  words  can  be  perceived  as  rapidly  as  single  letters  and 
short  sentences  require  only  a  very  little  more  time  than  single 
words. 

8.  The  reading  unit  is  the  sentence  or  the  whole  thought  expressed 
by  the  sentence. 

9.  Cases  of  perceiving  letter  by  letter  or  word  by  word  are  due 
to  habits  formed  in  learning  to  read. 

10.  Internal  speech  is  a  constant  factor  in  all  reading  for  nearly 
all  persons. 

11.  This  inner  speech  is  usually  simpler  and  more  rapid  than 
reading  aloud. 

12.  The  division  of  speech  into  syllables  and  words  is  artificial. 

13.  The  sounds  used  in  speech  can  not  usually  be  given  in  isola- 
tion. 

14.  A  sentence  is  not  merely  the  pronunciation  of  its  words. 

15.  The  meaning  of  what  is  read  is  secured  by  the  association  of 
ideas  as  determined  by  the  visual  and  vocal  cues  and  by  the 
context. 

16.  In  good  reading  the  attention  is  not  directed  to  the  letters  or 
the  words  but  it  is  given  now  to  one  thing  and  now  to  another 
in  a  way  that  is  not  yet  understood. 

17.  Many  extraneous  and  accidental  associations  form  when 
words  are  perceived  out  of  context. 

18.  The  mental  images  which  form  as  one  reads  are  variable  and 
fluctuating. 

19.  The  only  thing  which  remains  constant  in  re-reading  a  passage 
is  the  core  of  the  meaning. 


LITERATURE  AND  READING  103 


'20.    Rapid  reading  is  favorable  both  for  apprehension  and  for  re- 
tention. 

21.  Some  persons  read  four  times  as  fast  as  otliers. 

22.  A  rhythmic  movement  is  favorable  for  reading. 

The  chief  stages  of  development  in  learning  to  read  may  be 
named  as  follows: 

1.  Instinct  4.     Dramatization 

2.  Imitation  5.     Thought 

3.  Volition  6.     Purpose. 

Each  of  these  terms  may  be  used  again  to  name  the  metliod 
which  is  most  prominent  in  that  stage. 

1.  Instinct.  In  this  stage  the  child  reacts  instinctively  to 
the  books  in  his  environment.  He  looks  at  the  pictures  and  fre- 
quently thru  curiosity  he  wants  to  know  what  the  language  says. 
Gradually  associations  form  between  the  meaning  of  the  pictures 
and  the  printed  words  and  also  between  these  words  and  what 
others  tell  him  the  words  mean.  In  this  way  he  may  gradually 
learn  to  read. 

2.  Imitation.  The  instinct  of  imitation  becomes  prominent 
in  this  stage.  The  child  unconsciously  imitates  what  others  do 
when  they  are  reading  silently  or  aloud  in  his  presence.  If  he  has 
frequent  opportunity  to  look  on  the  page  as  others  read  aloud  he 
soon  learns  to  know  what  story  is  on  each  page.  Gradually  he 
learns  to  recognize  parts  of  the  pages  as  corresponding  to  parts  of 
the  story  and  later  to  know  what  sentences  and  words  mean, 
Then  his  instinct  of  imitation  which  has  now  become  a  habit  leads 
him  to  try  to  read  what  he  has  not  heard  read.  He  will  succeed 
in  this  as  soon  as  he  can  recognize  enough  words  and  phrases  to 
make  sense  when  they  come  together  in  his  mind.  This  method 
asks  that  many  good  copies  be  given  him  so  that  he  may  acquire 
good  forms  of  expression. 

3.  Volition.  What  characterizes  this  stage  is  that  the  child 
consciously  decides  what  he  is  going  to  do  and  how  he  is  going  to 
do  it.  Two  tendencies  arise ;  one  for  him  to  go  thru  a  merely  formal 
exercise  giving  close  attention  to  spelling  or  to  pronunciation,  and 
the  other  for  him  to  keep  the  meaning  in  his  mind  and  at  the  same 
time  to  pay  attention  to  the  forms  (letters,  sounds,  words,  etc.). 

In  accordance  with  the  first  of  these  tendencies  he  follows  the 
directions  of  the  teacher  by  spelling  or  naming  the  words,  by  sound- 


104  LITERATURE  AND  READING 


ing  the  letters  or  syllables,  and  by  pronouncing  the  syllables, 
words  or  sentences.  In  these  ways  he  learns  to  pronounce  as  many 
words  as  he  can  recognize,  but  he  has  not  learned  to  read  in  any 
true  sense  of  the  term.  These  formal  methods,  known  as  the  al- 
phabetic, phonic,  word  and  sentence  methods  are  gradually  giving 
way  to  the  more  real  dramatic  and  thought  methods.  The  com- 
mon practice  of  giving  a  part  of  the  reading  period  to  mere  word 
pronouncing  is  unfortunate,  for  such  an  exercise  is  never  really 
reading.  If  any  phonic,  word,  or  sentence  drills  are  given  they 
should  be  separated  from  the  reading  lesson  proper.  Certain  signs 
indicate  that  such  drills  may  gradually  disappear  from  school  work 
since  better  results  can  be  secured  by  keeping  the  meaning  before 
the  mind  and  perfecting  the  forms  by  giving  them  secondary  atten- 
tion. Drill  in  the  correct  pronunciation  of  isolated  syllables  or 
words  has  very  little  effect  in  real  reading,  because  the  associations 
formed  by  the  drill  are  not  of  the  same  kind  as  those  used  in  read- 
ing. The  great  method  of  securing  good  pronunciation  is  to  have 
the  child  frequently  hear  well  pronounced  language,  and  more  or 
less  unconsciously  imitate  it. 

If  the  second  of  these  tendencies  prevails  the  child  expresses 
his  thoughts  by  voluntarily  spelling,  sounding  or  pronouncing  the 
words.  In  this  way  he  gradually  acquires  new  languages,  as  it 
were,  by  which  to  express  his  thoughts  and  meanings,  and  these 
languages  give  most  thoro  practice  in  spelling,  in  pronouncing,  and 
in  other  formal  aspects  of  expression. 

4.  Dramatization.  When  the  dramatic  tendencies  arise  in 
the  child  he  begins  to  put  himself  in  another's  place,  to  feel  with 
another,  and  to  express  himself  in  such  a  way  as  to  reveal  the 
spirit  of  some  person  or  occasion.  As  a  method  this  is  very  effi- 
cient in  teaching  reading  if  due  care  is  taken  to  keep  the  work  free 
from  foraiality.  The  forms  of  expression  are  controlled  by  con- 
trolling the  experiences.  A  thoro  grounding  in  dramatization 
seems  to  be  essential  to  satisfactory  progress  in  the  higher  stages 
and  to  the  most  successful  use  of  the  higher  methods. 

In  using  this  method  the  teacher  is  not  limited  to  the  foiTns 
of  expression  which  arise  in  the  children  spontaneously.  He  may 
by  using  imitation  lead  the  children  to  assiune  various  bodily  atti- 
tudes which  will  react  on  their  experiences  and  thereby  mold  their 
forms  of  expression  in  the  desired  way.     The  dangers  which  arise 


LITERATURE  AND  READING  105 


in  doing  this  may  be  avoided  by  giving  many  copies  for  the  chil- 
dren to  imitate  and  by  always  making  this  work  supplementary 
to  the  method  of  working  from  within  out. 

5.  Thought.  The  activities  of  mind  which  are  most  promi- 
nent in  this  stage  are  those  which  carry  the  meanings  which  one 
gets  in  silent  reading.  These  are  usually  thinking  activities  and 
the  outcome  is  a  series  of  thoughts. 

The  thought  methods  ask  the  child  to  fix  his  attention  on 
the  thought  suggested  by  the  language  which  he  is  reading  and  on 
the  way  his  mind  acts  in  realizing  and  revealing  these  thoughts. 
The  underlying  principle  of  these  methods  when  used  in  teaching 
expressive  reading  is  that  the  best  forms  of  expression  may  be 
secured  (1)  by  encouraging  the  child  to  give  spontaneous  expression 
to  his  thoughts,  (2)  by  molding  these  thoughts  in  such  a  way  as  to 
secure  more  approved  forms  of  expression,  and  (3)  by  adding  to 
the  consciousness  of  the  meaning  some  attention  to  the  forms 
when  necessary.  The  success  of  these  methods  when  wisely  used 
is  one  of  the  most  encouraging  things  in  public  school  work. 

6.  Purpose.  As  a  stage  of  development  this  deserves  more 
attention  than  it  has  received  in  public  schools,  and  as  a  method 
it  is  most  promising.  When  the  child's  reading  fulfills  some  real 
purpose  of  which  he  is  conscious  he  is  using  the  purpose  method. 
In  this  as  in  the  thought  method  the  chief  attention  is  not  given  to 
the  forms  of  language  or  expression  but  to  the  inner  meaning,  tho 
some  secondary  attention  may  be  given  to  the  forms.  When  the 
purpose  has  a  social  reference  it  is  very  efficient  in  controlling  both 
the  thinking  and  the  expression.  This  method  excels  all  others  in 
bringing  out  latent  powers  and  in  using  them  and  all  other  powers 
in  the  most  effective  way.  It  gives  a  principle  by  which  the  great 
complexity  of  experience  may  be  organized. 

On  entering  school  the  child  should  have  many  strong  and 
active  instincts;  he  should  be  skilful  in  imitating  many  things,  and 
he  should  have  well  fonned  habits  of  obedience.  Upon  these  the 
teacher  must  build.  Each  of  these  has  its  fulfillment  in  the  next 
and  yet  it  persists  along  with  each  of  the  others.  By  a  right  use 
of  all  of  these  the  teacher  will  hasten  the  child's  progress  to  the 
dramatic  stage.  Then  by  adding  the  dramatic  method  to  those 
already  employed  the  teacher  insures  further  progress  in  the  best 
wav.     Well    directed   work    in    the   use   of   the   dramatic   method 


106  LITERATURE  AND  READING 

gradually  leads  onto  the  thought  stage.  The  purpose  method  may 
be  used  as  soon  as  the  children  can  hold  a  social  purpose  in  mind 
while  reading.  At  just  what  age  a  child  reaches  each  of  these 
stages  is  not  known.  Care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  the  practice 
both  of  keeping  the  children  too  long  in  one  stage  and  also  of 
hurrying  them  on  to  a  new  stage.  Perhaps  the  safest  principle  to 
follow  in  deciding  when  to  begin  to  ask  the  children  consciously 
to  use  the  method  of  any  higher  stage  is  when  this  method  has  al- 
ready arisen  unconsciously  in  the  child. 

II.  SUBJECT  MATTER 

1.  Principles  which  should  govern  in  selecting  subject  matter  for 
the  different  grades- 

(1)  Only  that  should  be  read  which  has  some  kind  of  real 
worth. 

(2)  In  each  grade  that  should  be  read  which  can  have  some 
kind  of  real  meaning  to  the  children  in  that  stage  of  de- 
velopment. 

(3)  The  mind's  power  to  receive  and  appreciate  is  quite  a 
distance  ahead  of  its  power  to  reveal  expressively. 

(4)  Success  both  in  appreciating  and  in  revealing  depends 
upon  securing  the  right  amount  of  bodily  response  (in- 
cluding movements).  The  motor  type  of  child  may  use 
too  much  movement  and  the  sensory  type,  too  little. 

2.  Kinds  of  material  best  adapted  to  school  work  in  literature 
and  reading. 

For  the  earlier  grades  may  be  suggested;  Mother  Goose 
rhymes,  jingles,  folk  lore,  fairy  tales,  and  simple  stories  of  prim- 
itive life. 

In  general,  use  stories  which  appeal  to  the  imagination  and  to 
feeling  and  which  contain  action,  adventure,  mystery,  magic, 
games,  etc.,  told  in  a  simple  way. 

For  the  middle  grades,  fables,  ballads,  stories  of  heroes  and  of 
heroic  adventure,  epics,  and  simple  dramas  are  desirable. 

In  general,  use  that  literature  which  appeals  to  imagination 
and  feeling  as  related  to  the  world  of  deeds,  which  is  somewhat 
melodramatic  and  even  grotesque,  and  which  gives  opportunity  for 
the  child's  powers  of  make-believe  to  have  full  swing. 


LITERATURE  AND  READING  107 

For  the  upper  grades  tlie  following  are  more  suitable:     lyrics, 
epics,  dramas,  biography,  detective  stories,  romances. 

In  general  an  introduction  to  some  of  the  best  literature  of 
life  and  love  should  be  studied  at  this  time. 
3.      Texts  used  in  the  different  grades. 

FIRST  GRADE 

B  Class:  Printed  Action  Commands;  The  Pancake  (Folk-tale  from 
Chart);  Hawthorne,  Sunbonnet,  and  Folk  Lore  Primers. 

A  Class:  In  Mythland;  Cyr  Advanced  First  Reader;  Realistic 
First  Reader;  Once  Upon  a  Time  Stories;  Folk  Lore  Stories  and 
Proverbs,  Wiltse. 

SECOND  GRADE 

B  Class:  Old  Time  Stories;  Child-Lore  Dramatic  Reader;  Boy 
Blue  and  His  Friends;  Little  Golden  Hood. 

A  Class:  Child  Life,  Blaisdell;  Bow  Wow  and  Mew  Mew,  Craik; 
Fairy  Tales  and  Fables,  Thompson;  Stepping  Stones  to  Litera- 
ture II;  Cyr  II;  Tree  Dwellers. 

THIRD  GRADE 

B  Class:  Second  Reader,  Baker  &  Carpenter;  Third  Reader,  Bald- 
win; Stories  of  Mother  Goose  Village,  Bigham;  Fairy  Stories  and 
Fables,  Baldwin;  Early  Cave  Men,  Dopp;  Robinson  Crusoe, 
De  Foe. 

A  Class:  Stepping  Stones  to  Literature  III;  Letters  From  a  Cat, 
II.  H.  Jackson;  Grover's  Art  Literature  III;  Later  Cave  Men, 
Dopp;  Hawthorne  II. 

FOURTH  GRADE 

B  Class:     Third  Reader,  Judson  &  Bender;  Third  Reader.  Baker 

lS:  Carpenter;  Viking  Tales,  Hall. 
A  Class :     Third  Reader,  Jones;  Docas,  Snedden;  Alice's  Adventures 

in  Wonderland,  Carroll;  Adventures  of  a  Brownie;  Classics  in 

Dramatic  Form. 

FIFTH  GRADE 

B  Class:  Third  Reader,  Hawthorne;  Stepping  Stones  IV;  Ulysses. 
Lamb;  Sir  Bevis,  Jeffries.  In  connection  with  Greek  history 
work  —  Stories  from  Plato,  Burt. 


108 


LITERATURE  AND  READING 


A  Class:  Heart  of  Oak  III,  (except  Ulysses);  Fourth  Reader, 
Jones;  Graded  Literature  Reader,  IV;  King  of  Golden  River, 
Ruskin;  Christmas  Carol,  Bird.  For  dramatization:  —  Hiawa- 
tha, Robin  Hood. 

SIXTH  GRADE 

B  Class:     King  Arthur;  Baldwin  V;  Judson  and  Bender  V;  Jacka- 
napes and  the  Brownies. 
A  Class:     William  Tell;  Cyr  V;  Lobo,  Rag,  and  Vixen. 

SEVENTH  GRADE 

B  Class :     Hawthorne  Fourth  and  Stepping  Stones  5th  —  most  of 

the  selections  in  each,  always  used.     The  Flag  Raising  —  always 

used.     Miles  Standish  —  used  occasionally. 
A  Class :     Baldwin  Sixth  Reader  —  always  used.     Occasional  use 

is  made  of  Birds  and  Bees,  Holmes  Leaflets,  and  Hawthorne's 

Wonder  Book. 

EIGHTH  GRADE 

B  Class:  Evolution  of  Expression,  Vol.  I.,  Emerson;  A  Hunting 
of  the  Deer,  Warner;  Lady  of  the  Lake,  Scott;  Vision  of  Sir 
Launfal,  Lowell;  Idylls  of  the  King  (selection  from);  Tennyson; 
Julius  Caesa.r,  Shakespeare. 

A  Class:  Grammar  School  Fourth  Reader,  Elson;  Ivanhoe  (adapt- 
ed), Scott;  Merchant  of  Venice,  Shakespeare;  Twelve  Stories 
from  Dickens;  Enoch  Arden,  Tennyson;  The  Man  Without  a 
Country,  Hale. 


MUSIC  109 


MUSIC 

The  course  includes  the  following  topics  in  school  music.  To 
these  are  added  subjects  in  other  departments  which  are  indicated 
by  the  sign  as  given. 

Elements  of  Notation — Voice  Study  (Child  and  Adult) — Sight 
Reading — Song  Study  and  Interpretation — Methods — Ear  Train- 
ing (Oral  and  written) — Practice  Teaching  and  Observation  Work 
— Musical  Biography — Music  Form  and  Analysis — Choral  Practice 
— *Literary  Interpretation — *  Reading — *Pedagogy — *  Psychology 
— *  History  of  Education — *School  Management. 

I.  Elements  of  Notation, 

Text  —  Elements  in  Music  —  Bertenshaw. 

Rhythm  —  Note,  dot,  rest,  bar,  measure,  accent,  time  signa- 
ture. 

Melody  —  (1)  Major  Scale:  Construction  and  transposition; 
(2)  Minor  Scale:     Related  and  tonic.     (3)  Chromatic  Scale. 

II.  Voice  Study. 

Voice  training,  sight  reading,  song  interpretation,  and  musical 
literature  have  a  lasting  value  in  musical  life.  Since  studio,  choral 
society,  and  chorus  choir  prefer  the  high  school  graduate  who  has 
attained  a  fair  mastery  in  the  subjects  mentioned,  these  might  well 
be  regarded  as  the  practical  side  of  a  public  school  music  course. 
The  professional  side  belongs  to  the  teacher,  and  in  addition  to  the 
topics  as  outlined  would  include  Musical  Historx-,  ITiirnionv  rind  a 
Piano-forte  course. 

The  Voice  is  the  instrument  which  the  pu]>il  learns  to  use  in 
the  school  room.  Possibly,  the  constantly  changing  school  voice 
is  the  greatest  problem  for  the  grade  teacher  to  solve.  Therefore, 
the  course  is  so  planned  that  the  chapter  on  Voice  Study  forms  a 
background  for  all  subsequent  work.  An  effort  is  made  to  treat 
music  as  a  language,  a  simple  language  which  the  child  can  com- 
prehend, appreciate  and  enjoy. 

1 .     The  Child  Voice. 

Text — The  Child  Voice  in  Singing — Howard. 

The  Care  and  Use  of  the  Child  Voice  —  Bates. 


* 


no  MUSIC 

Breathing  Exercises  for  children  should  be  few  and  simple. 
An  abundance  of  fresh  air,  a  good  posture,  and  daily,  vigorous  out- 
door play  will  make  for  breath  control  when  the  time  arrives  for 
intelligent  use  of  the  breath  in  singing  and  speaking.  Try  gentle, 
rhythmic  breathing  of  fresh  air  at  suitable  times  during  the  day. 

Exercise  I.      Inhale,  count  four;  hold,  count  four;  exhale,  count  four;  rest, 

count  four.     Repeat  several  times. 
Exercise  II.     Inhale,  exhale  abruptly. 
Exercise  III.     Inhale,  sustain  soft  tone  upon  Do    in  Key  of  E  —  use  vowel 

combination  oo  -  e  -  a.     Transpose  by  half  tones  higher,  singing  slowly 

and  softly. 

Vocal  Exercises:  Every  song,  every  exercise  must  be  made 
the  means  of  voice  training.  Vocalize  songs,  sight  reading  exer- 
cises with  ah,  la,  ta,  who,  loo,  and  other  syllables. 

2.     The  Adolescent  Voice. 

a.  The  Soprano  Voice. 

If  in  childhood  the  use  of  the  head  tone  has  been  practiced, 
the  voice  will  develop  naturally.  Encourage  a  light,  flexible 
tone,  unconscious  effort  in  the  upper  register.  The  teacher 
should  notice  the  tone  quality  of  the  speaking  voice,  for  much 
can  be  gained  from  a  careful  study  of  it.  Frequently  test 
voices  indiAadually ;  sopranos  who  caii  sing  easily  upward  from 
middle  C  to  G  (first  space  above)  should  continue  singing  that 
part ;  all  may  be  classed  as  altos  who  can  sing  downward  with 
the  right  tone  quality  from  C  (third  space)  to  one  or  two  notes 
below  middle  C. 

b.  The  Alto  Voice. 

The  alto  and  soprano  voices  differ  largely  in  timbre,  tone- 
color,  tone  quality.  There  is  the  same  difference  between  the 
alto  and  the  soprano  voice  as  exists  between  a  cello  and  a  violin. 
Neither  instrument  is  limited  in  compass,  they  vary  only  in 
tone  quality.  The  alto  voice  is  capable  of  a  head  tone,  or  of 
producing  high  notes  fully  as  beautiful  as  are  found  among 
sopranos,  though  unlike  in  timbre.  The  school  alto  suffers 
frequently  because  of  a  wrong  use  of  the  voice,  the  thick  tone 
is  forced  upward,  and  becomes  unmusical.  The  chest-tone  in 
itself  is  musical  when  produced  correctly.  Deep  breathing 
and  an  open  throat  will  result  in  mellow,   soft  tones.     The  I 

evenly  developed  scale  should  be  the  aim  thruout  school  life. 


MUSIC  111 

The  high,  medium,  and  low  tones  ought  to  be  considered  alike, 
and  as  far  as  possible,  be  developed  at  the  proper  time.  Melody 
and  part-singing  must  alternate  continually  in  school  singing 
since  it  would  be  fatal  if  any  one  of  the  parts  continued  singing 
within  a  limited  compass.  It  is  also  difficult  to  determine  the 
future  of  a  voice  at  an  early  period,  therefore,  interchange 
parts  frequently  in  upper  grades. 
The  Tenor  Voice. 

The  change  in  the  boy  voice  is  more  or  less  gradual,  boys 
who  have  been  trained  in  the  use  of  the  head  voice  retaining 
their  voices  much  longer  than  when  allowed  to  force  the  voice. 
While  the  average  boy  imagines  he  has  a  bass  voice  when  the 
change  takes  place,  his  voice  is  in  reality  an  unknown  quantity. 
Listen  for  the  tenor  quality  which  is  high  and  light,  possessing 
something  of  the  quality  of  the  deep  female  voice,  or  alto  tim- 
bre. Try  the  boy  upon  the  descending  scale,  beginning  with 
middle  C  and  notice  any  undue  effort  in  reaching  the  lower 
tones.  If  it  is  evident  that  a  boy  has  a  tenor  voice  he  should 
not  be  allowed  to  sing  below  G,  fourth  space  of  the  bass  clef. 
The  tenor  voice  is  limited  in  compass  even  after  much  training. 
A  series  of  exercises  which  follow  the  gradual  change  of  the 
voice  would  seem  desirable  at  the  beginning  of  the  mutation 
period.  The  new  tenor  voice  can  be  employed  in  singing  the 
second  alto  in  three  part  songs,  which  are  found  in  most  ad- 
vanced music  readers.  By  and  by  the  part  usually  assigned 
the  tenor  in  four  part  music  for  mixed  voices  can  be  attempted. 

The  Bass  Voice.    Text:  Melodia,  Part  I.  Cole  and  Lewis, 
The  Stanhope  Edition.     No.  102-3-4. 

To  begin  work  in  the  bass  clef  in  the  key  of  G  (pitch  of 
Do,  fourth  space)  and  then  descend  thru  the  keys  until  the 
key  of  C  is  reached  would  seem  to  conform  more  with  the  de- 
velopment of  the  boy  voice,  than  to  begin  upon  a  much  lower 
pitch.  The  bass  voice  will  grow  more  resonant  and  musical 
if  medium  tones  are  developed  at  first;  avoid  any  forcing  of 
the  voice  during  the  mutation  period.  There  should  be  much 
unison  singing  of  exercises  and  songs  upon  beginning  the  use 
of  the  bass  clef.  Give  individual  attention  as  far  as  is  possible 
since  all  voices  do  not  change  alike.     A  special  class  for  boys 


112  MUSIC 

during  the  mutation  period  would  prove  helpful;  after  the 
voice  is  established  any  text  can  be  employed, 
e.      The  Voice  of  the  Grade  Teacher. 

Text— Book  I,  Vocal  A,  B,  C— Panofka.     Op.  9.  Concone. 

Since  the  voice  of  the  teacher  is  all  important  in  the 
school-room,  the  grade  teacher  who  has  had  special  voice  train- 
ing is  most  fortunate.  Individual  voice  or  class  training  would 
make  many  things  possible  in  teaching  sight  reading  and  song 
interpretation.  The  sustained  tone  is  most  essential  in  train- 
ing the  adult  voice.  Practice  upon  the  sustained  tone  is  also 
helpful  in  gaining  breath  control.  The  study  of  a  beautiful 
tone,  and  coming  in  contact  with  musical  life  beyond  the 
schoolroom  is  a  source  of  inspiration. 

III.    The  Art  of  Conducting. 

1.  The  Baton:  There  should  be  leadership  in  conducting 
a  music  class.  The  tempo  is  all  important  in  singing  both 
song  and  exercise.  The  number  and  value  of  beats,  the 
number  and  place  of  accents  can  easily  be  explained  and 
understood,  but  the  interpretation  of  tempo  and  time  is 
a  far  more  subtle  and  difficult  task.  Because  of  the  na- 
ture of  the  song  there  should  be  variety  in  the  tempo. 
The  attack  will  improve  too  under  leadership.  Holding 
the  baton  lightly  and  gracefully,  and  beating  time  with 
an  easy,  rhythmic  swing,  using  but  the  necessary  motions, 
will  impress  time,  rhythm,  and  tempo  in  a  very  simple, 
direct  way.  Secure  the  attention  of  the  class  by  saying 
(for  example,  in  4-4  time,  first  note  on  first  beat),  one,  - 
two,  -  three  -  sing,  giving  signal  for  beginning  on  beat 
preceding  first  note  of  measure.  The  mechanical  rhythm 
and  tempo  of  the  schoolroom  can  be  displaced  only  thru 
spirited,  enthusiastic  leadership  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 
Nothing  will  wake  up  a  drowsy,  rote  song  class  more  than 
— "Shall  we  sing  it  this  way?",  followed  by  a  spirited  il- 
lustration with  voice  or  baton.  The  spirit  of  the  tempo 
brings  much  life  into  a  schoolroom ;  try  to  make  music  a 
source  of  inspiration. 

2.  The  Pitch-Pipe:  The  frequent  and  rapid  giving  of  the 
pitch  is   vital  in  securing  correct  intonation   and   voice 


MUSIC  113 

placing.     The  use  of  the  pitch-pipe  and  baton  are  among 
the  essentials  in  method  of  teaching  music. 
Formula  for  the  use  of  the  pitch-pipe  (C  pitch-pipe). 

To  find  the  key-note,  Scale  of  C — 

Sound  always  upper  Do,  sing  to  lower  Do,  call  it  Do. 
To  find  the  key-note,  Scale  of  G  (one  sharp). 

Sound  C,  sing  to  Sol,  call  it  Do. 
To  find  the  key-note.  Scale  of  D  (two  sharps). 

Sound  C,  sing  to  lower  Do,  sing  Re,  call  it  Do. 
To  find  the  key-note.  Scale  of  A  (three  sharps). 

Sound  C,  sing  to  La,  call  it  Do. 
To  find  the  key-note.  Scale  of  E  (four  sharps). 

Sound  C,  sing  to  Mi,  call  it  Do. 
To  find  the  key-note.  Scale  of  F  (one  flat). 

Sound  C,  sing  to  Fa,  call  it  Do. 
To  find  the  key-note.  Scale  of  B  flat  (two  flats), 

Sound  C,  sing  to  Re  in  key  of  B  flat,  call  it  Do. 
To  find  the  key-note.  Scale  of  E  flat  (three  flats). 

Sound  C,  sing  to  lower  Do,  call  it  La  in  key  of   E   flat,   sing 

up  to  Do  in  key  of  E  flat. 
To  find  the  key-note.  Scale  of  A  flat  (four  flats). 

Sound  C,  call  it  Mi  in  key  of  A  flat,  sing  down  to  key-note 

of  A  flat. 

IV.     Song  Study  and  Interpretation. 

a.     The  Grade  Teacher  and  the  Rote  Song. 

The  teacher  familiar  with  a  long  list  of  rote  songs  stands  in 
little  need  of  methods  and  theories.  A  simple,  direct  way  of  pre- 
senting a  song  appeals  most  to  the  child.  The  Rote  Song  requires 
study  and  preparation  quite  as  much  as  does  the  Art  Song.  There- 
fore, if  grade  teachers  would  find  it  possible  to  devote  a  part  of 
each  school  year  to  the  study  of  rote  songs,  the  result  would  prove 
a  real  musical  upHft  in  the  schoolroom.  The  primary  teacher 
ought  to  have  a  good  voice,  dramatic  power,  and  keen  interpreta- 
tive ability  in  presenting  a  simple  rote  song.  Then  she  must  pos- 
sess the  art  of  skilful  questioning;  she  must  have  the  gift  of  story 
telling;  she  needs  a  large  fund  of  general  information  upon  birds, 
bees  and  flowers,  the  trades  and  occupations,  the  world  in  which 
the  child  lives.  Always  present  the  song  as  a  whole,  singing  the 
song  for  the  class  several  times  before  allowing  children  to  imitate. 
Then  ask  the  class  to  repeat  a  phrase,  or  more,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  song. 


114  MUSIC 

b.    Song  Interpretation. 

A.  Melody. 

1.  Tone-quality  should  be  pure  musical,  sympathetic, 
depending  largely  upon  training  and  method;  intona- 
tion must  be  correct  as  to  pitch  and  intervals. 

2.  Rhythmic  quality:  observe  the  accents,  secure  the 
swing  of  the  rhythm. 

3.  Tempo  includes  movement,  rate  of  speed,  spirit  of  the 
music. 

4.  Attack  of  tones  and  leads  must  be  exact;  insist  upon 
precision  in  quitting  final  syllables. 

5.  Shading  as  to  soft  and  loud  passages:  a  quiet  tone,  a 
resonant  forte,  a  fine  climax,  these  all  most  effective 
among  mature  voices. 

B.  Words. 

1.  Tone  color.  Look  for  the  mood-pictures  in  the  song; 
create  picture  which  words  represent;  look  for  expres- 
sive words  and  phrases  in  song. 

2.  Diction  should  be  graceful,  dwelling  upon  open  vowel 
sound;  enunciating  as  in  distinct  reading. 

3.  Phrasing  is  the  grouping  of  words  to  express  thot ;  re- 
cite words  to  secure  perfect  phrasing  and  expression. 

V.     Methods. 

Musicianship  is  needed  in  the  correct  use  of  the  voice,  pitch- 
pipe,  baton,  sight-reading  and  song  interpretation.  Method  is 
needed  in  presenting  some  of  the  first  steps  in  notation.  It  is  the 
mastery  of  ideas  which  is  so  important  in  school  music,  the  working 
>ut  of  a  song  or  exercise  along  these  lines  presents  a  never  failing 
source  of  interest  and  pleasure. 

IN  PRIMARY  GRADES 

1.      The  Rote  Song. 

Text — A  Song  Primer — Alys  Bentley,  30c. 

Small  Songs  for  Small  Singers — W.  H.  Neidlinger,  50c. 

The  Discontented  Goldfish— W.  H.  Neidlinger,  75c. 

Song  Development  for  Little  Children — Heartz  and  Ripley,  50c. 

Songs  of  the  Season — George,  50c. 

Mother  Goose  Melodies — J.  W.  Elliot,  35c. 

Songs  from  the  Child  World— Jessie  L.  Gaynor.  Book,  I,  II,  $1.00. 

Lilts_^and  Lyrics — Jessie  L.  Gaynor,  $1.00. 


MUSIC  115 

The  child's  first  effort  in  music  begins  with  a  study  of  simple 
musical  literature.  He  learns  to  sing  as  he  learns  to  read,  thru  the 
use  of  a  simple  song-story,  which  is  closely  identified  with  his  daily 
life  and  surroundings.  Self  expression  on  the  part  of  the  child  is 
made  possible  only  thru  the  selection  of  suitable  song  material. 
Play  and  action  songs  ought  to  call  forth  a  natural  happy  expression 
in  singing,  because  self-activity  is  so  strong  in  childhood.  The 
Mother  Goose  rhymes  and  fairy  stories  are  easily  dramatized  and 
therefore  satisfy  the  dramatic  instinct  of  the  child. 

The  rote  song  is  in  many  ways  a  preparation  for  music  reading 
and  future  study. 
2.      Ear  Tr.mnixg. 

a.     Melody  Studies. 

For  the  sake  of  testing  the  class  and  individual  members  of 
the  school  in  distinguishing  sounds  as  to  pitch  and  length,  make 
the  following  experiments.  The  teacher  should  sing  the  interval 
1  to  8  in  scale  of  E  flat,  using  Loo,  La,  names  as  Flora,  Lulu.  Class 
imitate.  Test  individuals.  Let  children  try  to  recognize  the  voice 
of  any  play-mate  when  speaking,  singing,  calling,  or  imitating 
sounds  in  nature.  Tell  a  story  which  brings  into  play  the  use  of 
the  child  voice;  for  example.  The  Three  Bears,  The  Lion  and  the 
Mouse. 

Name  all  the  song  birds  of  the  locality,  if  possible  reproducing 
some  of  the  songs.  Name  all  the  insects  that  are  musicians.  In 
making  the  following  tests,  use  pitch-pipe,  piano,  or  any  musical 
instrument,  bells,  whistles,  musical  toys.  Always  give  two  sounds 
and  ask  the  class  —  are  they  alike  or  different?  Ask  the  class,  or 
pupil  to  distinguish  between  high  and  low  sounds;  loud  and  soft 
sounds;  long  and  short  sounds;  fast  and  slow  sounds;  distant  and 
near  sounds;  clear  and  dull  sounds;  harsh  and  sweet  sounds;  even 
and  uneven  sounds;  Another  test  can  be  given  by  humming  a 
familiar  song,  all  who  recognize  song,  raise  hands.  The  formal 
study  of  intervals  is  then  introduced  orally.  The  first  step  is  imi- 
tation as  in  the  rote  song.  The  teacher  sings  a  group  of  notes  with 
La,  Loo  or  syllable  names,  class  and  individuals  repeat;  this  is 
sometimes  called  tone-matching.  Use  ascending  scale  upon  be- 
ginning this  step. 
Key  of  G.  Tone-Matching, 
a.      Do,  Sol;  Do,  Mi,  Sol;  Do,  Sol,  Mi;  Sol,  Mi.  Do;  Sol.  Do,  Sol,  Do,  Sol; 


lit)  MUSIC 

Do,  Sol;  Do,  Fa;  Do,  Fa,  Mi,  Re,  Do;  Do,  Fa,  Do,  Fa,  Do;  Do,  Mi,  Do; 
Do,  Sol,  Fa,  Mi,  Re,  Do. 

b.  (Use  lower  Sol).     Do,  Sol;  Do,  Sol,  La,  Si,  Do;  Do,  La;  Do,  Sol;  Do, 
Fa,  Do;  Do,  Mi,  Sol,  (upper)  Sol  (lower),  Do. 

Oral  dictation  follows  imitation  lessons.     Teacher  says,  "Sing  Do,  Sol." 

Class  responds  using  syllable  names  or  sometimes  La.     Review  all  exercises 

given  in  first  group  for  oral  dictation. 

The  following  group  can  also  be  included  in  dictation  work,   teacher 

change  number  names  as  given  to  syllable  names. 

Key  of  D.     Dictation. 

8,  7,  6,  8—8,  7,  6,  5,  8—8,  7,  7,  8—8,  7,  6,  6,  7,  8—8,  7,  6,  5,  5,  6,  7,  8— 
1,  2,  1—1,  2,  3,  1—1,  2,  3,  4,  1— 1,'2,  3,  4,  5,  1—1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  4,  5,  4,  3,  5, 
4,  3,  2,  5,  1—1,  2,  2,  1—1,  2,  3,  3,  2,  1—1,  2,  3,  4,  4,  3,  2,  1—1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  5, 
1,  5,  4,  3,  2,  1—1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  5,  4,  3,  5,  4,  3,  2,  5,  1—1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8, 
8,  7,  8—8,  7,  6,  5,  4,  3,  2,  1—1,  2,  3.  4,  5,  6,  7,  8—1,  3,  5,  8,  5,  3,  1—1,  4, 
6,  8,  6,  4,  1—1,  8,  1. 

c.  Sing  the  scale  down ;  up ;  loudly ;  softly ;  slowly ;  rapidly ;  repeating  each 
tone;  class  and  teacher  alternating;  individual  scale  singing. 

b.     Rhythm  Studies. 

The  child  is  naturally  rhythmic  in  movement,  speech  and 
song.  He  needs  most  a  concrete  form  of  expression  which  will 
bring  into  play  his  rhythmic  sense.  For  this  purpose  the  singing 
of  graceful,  rhythmic  music  is  of  greatest  importance  in  establish- 
ing a  sense  of  rhythm.  Rhythmical  physical  exercises  are  also 
helpful. 

The  recurring  accent  in  poetry  is  helpful  in  gaining  the  idea 
of  accent  and  measure.  The  Mother  Goose  Rhymes,  Robert  Louis 
Stevenson's  Child's  Garden  of  Verses,  and  many  child  lyrics  by 
Eugene  Field  can  be  used  in  finding  the  rhythmic  element.  Tap 
the  rhythm  of  the  verses;  sing  verses.  Tap  the  rhythm  in  follow- 
ing.    Are  they  alike  or  different? 

/  a.  Tick-tock;  tick-tock;  tick-tock. 

\   b.  Rap-tap-tap ;  tit-tat-too. 

/  a.  Ding-dong;  ding-dong;  ding-dong. 

\  b.  Lul-la-bye;  lul-la-bye;  lul-la-bye. 

How  many  times  does  the  bell  ring?     (Ring  two  part  measure, 

three-part  measure  and  other  forms.) 

Send  one  child  to  the  board  and  let  him  indicate  the  rhythm 
by  drawing  downward  strokes  in  time  with  the  clapping  of  the 
class,  using  a  stronger  and  longer  stroke  for  the  strong  than  for 
the  weak  pulses:  (a)  Let  the  strokes  be  made  in  time  with  the 
clapping;  use  different  measure  fomis;  (b)  Let  the  class  recite  in 


MUSIC  117 

time  with  the  clapping  and  board-work;  strong,  weak,  strong,  weak, 
or  strong,  weak,  weak;  giving  a  variety  of  measures. 

3.  Visualizing  the  Song.  (Primer  in  hands  of  pupils,  second 
year.)  The  preparatory  work  leading  to  formal  sight  reading  con- 
sists in  visualizing  many  of  the  songs  found  in  the  music  primer. 
This  step  is  necessary  to  make  pupils  familiar  with  the  use  of  a 
music  reader. 

1.  Teacher  write  song  upon  blackboard.  2.  Pupils  count  notes 
upon  first  line,  second  line  and  other  degrees  of  the  staff;  pupils 
count  measures;  pupils  find  highest  note;  lowest  note;  longest  and 
shortest  notes;  which  note  is  most  often  repeated;  in  how  many 
places  skips  are  to  be  found.  3.  Class  open  books  to  song;  teacher 
indicate  a  note  upon  blackboard;  pupils  find  the  same  in  books. 
Teacher  name  a  word;  pupils  find  the  same  in  books;  point  to  a 
word  upon  blackboard;  find  the  same  in  books;  count  the  number 
of  staffs  upon  page;  find  the  first  staff,  fourth  staff",  etc.;  find  third 
measure,  second  staff;  name  a  word  belonging  to  above  measure; 

find  word ;  describe  where  it  is    found.     4.  Develop  the 

idea  of  the  phrase;  teacher  sing  first  phrase,  then  second;  are  they 
alike?  dift'erent?  Discover  number  of  different  melodies  in  a  song; 
sketch  rhythm;  notice  accent. 

4.  Sight  Re.\ding. 

Text:     Charts  A  and  B  and  Primer,  Natural   Music  Course. 

The  lessons  upon  the  chart  should  be  brief,  and  presented  as 
in  the  reading  class.  All  theory  should  be  omitted,  the  lesson 
serving  only  as  a  mode  of  thought  expression,  being  as  yet  merely 
a  simple  language  lesson. 

We  should  seek  to  find  a  simple  text  for  the  first  steps;  impress 
familiarity  with  the  scale  form,  key  signature,  key-note,  and  time 
signature;  read  exercise  with  syllable  names  until  thoroly  familiar; 
look  for  melodic  phrase  and  rhythmic  fonn. 

a.  Scale  drill.  Place  scale  upon  blackboard  and  give  rapid 
drill  upon  intervals  and  skips. 

b.  Chart  drill.  1.  Teacher  point;  2.  Child  point ;  3.  Find  high- 
est, lowest,  or  shortest  note;  4.  Class  select  exercise;  5.  In- 
dividuals sing;  G.  One  row  sing  —  all  others  listen,  etc.;  7. 
Teacher  sing  without  naming  exercise  —  Class  indicate 
exercise ;  8.  Teacher  point  out  a  group  of  notes  —  take  away 


118  MUSIC 

pointer,  class  singing  from  memory ;  9.  Use  syllables  —  La 
—  Loo-Koo  —  Vowels  —  Words;  10.  Call  for  tones  by  nam- 
ing degree  of  staff.  The  chart  work  can  alternate  with 
sight  reading  in  the  Primer  later  in  the  year, 
c.  Primer  drill.  1.  Clap  the  hands  at  the  first  note  of  each 
measure ;  2.  Sing  the  key-note  each  time  and  think  the  others ; 
3.  Sing  the  first  measure,  think  the  second,  alternate;  4. 
Beat  time,  accent  the  first  note  in  each  measure;  5.  How 
many  beats  are  there  in  a  measure  ?  6.  V/hat  is  the  time  sig- 
nature? 7.  What  does  the  upper  figure  represent?  the  lower? 
8.  Name  the  first  note  in  the  exercise,  the  last  note.  9.  Does 
the  exercise  go  up  or  down,  or  both?  10.  Is  the  key-note  sung 
more  than  once?  11.  Where  is  the  key-note?  12.  Are  there 
any  skips?  13.  What  do  we  call  the  figures  at  the  beginning 
of  the  exercise?  14.  Sing  the  exercise  forward  and  backward; 
class  and  teacher  alternate. 

5.  Individual  Singing. 

Thruout  the  school  course,  individual  singing  is  of  importance. 
In  first  and  second  grades  the  daily  music  lesson  ought  to  consist 
of  individual  as  well  as  class  singing.  In  the  upper  grades  have 
separate  class  rooms  for  boys  and  girls  during  individual  singing 
since  the  changing  voice  is  apt  to  lead  to  embarrassing  moments  in 
the  music  hour.  The  success  of  the  music  course  must  be  meas- 
ured by  individual  results. 

6.  Monotone  Singing. 

The  monotone  element  is  found  in  every  subject  of  a  common 
school  course.  The  monotone  child  is  usually  the  backward  child, 
requiring  more  individual  attention  than  does  the  average  member 
of  a  class.  However,  no  work  is  more "  effective  than  the  cure  of 
the  monotone,  especially  in  the  First  Grade.  If  all  monotone  chil- 
dren were  trained  to  sing  correctly  during  the  first  year,  or  in  the 
early  part  of  the  course,  the  future  classes  would  be  much  more 
evenly  graded  than  at  present.  The  First  Grade  music  class  ought 
to  be  divided  into  two  sections  or  choirs,  each  having  separate  music 
periods.  Begin  in  the  monotone  class  (or  section  one)  with  indi- 
vidual work;  try  first  of  all  to  change  the  speaking  tone  (the  one 
usually  employed  by  the  monotone)  to  the  singing  tone.  In  order 
to  accomplish  this,  use  the  work  as  outlined  in  the  Ear  Training 


MUSIC  119 

Course.     Time  is  well  spent  upon  the  monotone  class  as  has  been 
shown  in  schools  in  which  this  work  has  been  attempted. 

7.        EXAMIXATION    IN    MUSIC. 

During  each  term  there  should  be  given  an  individual  test  upon 
work  accomplished.  If  a  pupil  can  sing  the  scale  correctly,  read 
an  exercise  intelligently,  sing  a  song  with  spirit,  and  with  good 
tonal  and  rhythmic  qualities  he  has  mastered  the  fundamental  ele- 
ments in  music. 

INTERMEDIATE  AND  GRAMMAR  GRADES 

The  work  in  the  upper  grades  consists  of  vocal  exercises;  sight 
reading  of  exercises  and  songs  in  the  diatonic,  chromatic,  and  minor 
forms  of  the  scale;  rhythm  of  simple  and  divided  beat;  simple  and 
compound  measure;  unison  and  part  singing;  and  advanced  ear 
training  and  manuscript  exercises.  Independent  work  on  the  part 
of  both  class  and  individual  pupils  is  now  possible,  this  being  es- 
pecially evident  in  part  singing.  The  most  important  problem  in 
the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  is  the  treatment  of  the  adolescent 
voice.  (See  notes  upon  the  adolescent  voice.) 
1.      Ear  Trainixg. 

Text :     The  Manuscript  Series  of  Vocal  Music — Robert  Fores- 
man. 

1.  Copied  Work.     (All  Grades). 

Copy  from  blackboard   (1)   the  scale;   (2)  simple  exercise; 
(3)  song. 

2.  Dictation  Exercise.     (All  Grades). 

(1)  a.  Class  write  scale  in  which  the  dictation  exercise  is  to 
be  given;  b.  Teacher  give  directions  for  form  of  notation, 
and  arrangement  of  exercise;  c.  Class  sing  the  scale;  d. 
Teacher  sing  the  phrase  with  syllable  "La;"  class  write 
notes;  e.  Test.  Teacher  read  syllable  names  of  notes 
and  degrees  of  staff.  (2)  Draw  the  staff  upon  the 
blackboard;  class  or  teacher  sing  phrase,  or  song  with 
syllable  "la",  pupil  reproducing  the  same  upon  black- 
board. 

3.  Invention,  or  original  work.      (Intermediate  and  Grammar 

Grades.) 


120  MUSIC 

a.  Complete  a  given  melody;  b.  Complete  notation  of  a  song; 
c.  Complete  omitted  measures  of  a  song  or  exercise;  d.  Fit 
a  given  poem  to  a  given  melody;  e.  Compose  a  poem  to  a 
given  melody ;  f .  Write  an  original  melody.  (Teacher  indi- 
cate key,  time  signature,  length  of  melody.) 

4.  Memory  Work. 

a.  Write  from  memory  nine  scales  commonly  in  use;  b. 
Familiar  song. 

5.  Time  Exercises. 

a.  Add  necessary  time  signatures  to  a  given  exercise;  add 

necessary  bars ;  b.  Re-write  an  entire  song  in  a  new  time  form. 

2.      The  Part  Song.     (Intermediate  and  Grammar  Grades.) 

Text  —  The  Music  Reader  as  usually  employed  —  supplementary  texts 
as  given:  The  Laurel  Song  Reader  —  Tomlins,  60c;  The  Lyric 
Song  Book  —  Loomis,  60c ;  High  School  Song  Book  —  Zeiner,  85c ; 
The  School  Song  Book  —  McConathy,  50c ;  One  Hundred  Folk 
Songs  —  Gilbert,  50c. 

In  the  Intermediate  and  Grammar  Grades  a  study  of  national 
life  becomes  possible.  A  broader  view  is  obtained  thru  the  singing 
of  folk  songs,  and  music  of  a  people.  In  the  High  school,  musical 
form,  and  music  as  literature  is  possible.  Part  songs  of  different 
nations,  selections  from  the  oratorio  and  opera,  and  concerted 
works  offer  abundant  material  for  the  study  of  national  and 
classical  musical  literature. 

The  grade  teacher  comes  in  contact  with  an  untrained  musical 
taste,  not  a  poor  taste,  simply  immaturity  in  taste  as  in  all  other 
forms  of  class  room  work.  Therefore,  the  selection  of  material  is 
important  since  a  fine  taste  in  music  is  cultivated  thru  the  use  of 
songs  which  have  a  permanent  literary  and  musical  value. 

For  the  best  results  in  class  work,  organize  the  school  so  that 
soprano,  alto,  tenor,  and  bass  voices  are  grouped  each  day. 
National  Holidays.     At  Thanksgiving  time,  Lincoln's  birthday, 

Washington's  birthday  and  Memorial  Day  the  patriotic  songs 

of  our  country  ought  to  be  sung  in  our  Public  Schools. 

Text  —  Patriotic  Songs  —  Brewer. 

VI.     Organization  of  "Work  Thruout  the  Grades. 

The  topics  as  outlined  are  presented  thruout  the  grades.  The 
work  simply  increases  in  difficulty  as  the  pupil  advances,  the  texts 


MUSIC  121 

furnishing  progressive  material  as  far  as  is  possible.  Methods  of 
presenting  each  step  are  also  included  in  advanced  music  readers. 
Texts. 

First  Ye.\r. 

Rote  Songs.  |  '(j'f^. 

Ear  training  exercises.  )   Rh   th 

Chart  A  —  Natural  Music  Series. 
Second  Year. 

Modern  Music  Primer  —  Part  I . 

Rote  Songs. 

Ear  training  exercises  —  same  as  in  First  Year. 

Visualizing. 

Chart  B  —  Natural  Music  Series. 
Third  Ye.\r. 

Melodic  First  Reader. 

Modern  Primer — Parts  II.  III. 

Rote  Songs.  [  Voice. 

Ear  training  exercises.  I    r>u°4.u^' 

„.  ,      „      ,r  1    Rhythm. 

Sight  Reading.  [  Dictation. 

Fourth  Year. 

Book  One,  Eleanor  Smith  Music  Course. 

Modern  First  Book. 

Ear  training  exercises  —  same  as  in  Third  Year. 

Bight  Reading  {  f---^ 

Fifth  Year. 

Book  Two,  Eleanor  Smith  Music  Course. 

Modern  Second  Book  —  Part  I. 

Ear  training,  Dictation  and  Manuscript  exercises.     Book  I.,  Manu- 
script Series  of  Vocal  Music  —  Robert  Foresman. 
Sixth  Year. 

Book  Two,  Eleanor  Smith  Music  Course. 

Modern  Second  Book  —  Part  II. 

Ear  training  —  Outline  same  as  in  Fifth  Year. 
Seventh  Year. 

Book  Three,  Eleanor  Smith  Music  Course. 

Modern  Third  Book  —  Part  I. 

Ear  training —  Book  II.     Manuscript  Series  of  Vocal  Music. 
Eighth  Year. 

Book  Four,  Eleanor  Smith  Music  Course. 

Modern  Third  Book—  Part  III. 

Ear  training — Book  III.      Manuscrii>t  Scries  of  Vocal  Music. 

VII.     The  Daily  Routine  of  a  Music  Lesson. 

1.     Signal  for  attention,  two  taps,  or  quietly  saying.  Attention! 


122  MUSIC 

2.  Signal  for  position.  The  pupils  should  sit  or  stand  in  a  position 
of  attention.  The  body  should  be  erect  and  alert,  in  order  that  vocal 
organs  can  respond  easily.  The  throat  should  be  well  opened  so  that  tone 
production  is  easy. 

The  book  should  be  held  so  that  the  lower  edge  rests  upon  the  desk; 
the  index  finger  of  the  right  hand  should  be  placed  along  the  right  edge 
of  the  book,  and  be  used  in  tapping  the  time. 

3.  Upon  beginning  the  vocal  work  use  the  pitch-pipe  in  finding  the 
pitch  of  key-note;  use  the  baton  in  giving  time  and  tempo. 

Order  of  Lesson,  Primary  Grade. 

1.  Breathing  exercises  and  vocal  drill 1  minute 

2.  Rote  Song  (review) 4  minutes 

3.  Ear  training  exercises 1  minute 

4.  Visualizing  of  song 1  minute 

5.  Sight  reading 2  minutes 

6.  Rote  song  (new) 3  minutes 

The  steps  can  alternate  if  necessary.     Thus,  first  day  1,  2,  3,  5;  second  day 
1,  2,  4,  6;  third  day  2,  3,  5,  6,  etc. 

Individual  and  class  singing  should  alternate  thruout  the  lesson. 

Order  of  Lesson.     Intermediate  and  Grammar  Grades. 

1.  Breathing  exercises  and  vocal  drill 1  minute 

2.  Song  (review) 4  minutes 

3.  Sight  reading,  Exercises  and  Song;  discuss  scale  form,  key 

signature,  key-note,  time  signature,  rhythm  form.... 6  minutes 

4.  Song  Interpretation  (New  Song) 4  minutes 

5.  Ear  Training 3  minutes 

Vin.  A  Course  in  Music  Appreciation  is  given  during  the  daily 
chorus  practice  period,  the  illustrations  being  used  for  all 
special  events  of  the  school  year,  including  commencement 
exercises. 


DRAWING  123 


DRAWING 

I.     INTRODUCTION 

Any  education,  to  be  really  effective,  must  rest  upon  the  broad 
culture  of  the  intellectual,  aesthetic,  and  moral  powers  of  the  mind. 
Drawing  appeals  forcibly  to  all  these  powers,  and  on  this  appeal 
rests  its  chief  claim  to  a  place  in  the  school  course.  Pedagogically 
speaking,  drawing  is  not  a  talent  possessed  by  the  few,  but  it  is  a 
means  of  expression  common  to  all,  thru  the  use  of  which  may  be 
developed  observation,  self-activity,  concentration,  imitation,  in- 
ventive and  creative  power. 

DRAWING  IN  THE   PRIMARY  GRADES 

Drawing  in  the  primary  grades  should  be  as  free  and  spon- 
taneous as  early  speech.  It  should  show  the  development  of  the 
individual  instead  of  the  object  merely. 

Early  results  are  crude,  but  children  should  not  omit  doing 
things  which  they  cannot  do  well.  The  desire  to  express  should 
arouse  proper  study  thru  guidance  by  the  teacher.  Variety  in 
the  objects  drawn  will  eliminate  conventionality  and  induce  critical 
study  and  observation. 

Im.\gin'ative  and  Illustrative  Drawing.  From  the  tirst 
the  child's  impulse  is  to  create,  to  express  graphically  his  ideas  and 
impressions  of  things.  It  is  that  energy,  common  to  every  child, 
which  leads  him  to  express  his  individual  thought,  feeling,  and 
experience  in  some  definite  form.  Imaginative  drawing  is  an  aid 
to  all  other  studies;  it  should  not  exist  as  a  separate  activity,  but 
as  a  friend  and  playmate  of  every  study,  growing  itself  mainly  by 
helping  others.  Its  purpose  is  to  develop  the  creative  power  of 
the  child.  In  the  expression  of  thoughts  and  in  the  making  of 
exact  records,  drawing  is  as  important  a  mode  of  expression  as  lan- 
guage. 


124  DRAWING 


Exercises  in  telling  stories  without  words  are  wonderfully 
helpful  in  developing  the  power  of  expression.  Illustrate  games, 
action  of  animals,  the  trades,  as  the  blacksmith,  the  shoemaker, 
the  farmer.  These  exercises  in  dramatic  action  should  be  followed 
by  expression  in  drawing.  Stories  which  stimulate  the  imagina- 
tion to  definite  pictorial  expression  are  nature  stories,  classic  myths. 
Mother  Goose  melodies,  and  Indian  folk-lore.  Selections  from 
child  literature  of  Longfellow,  Eugene  Field,  James  Whitcomb 
Riley,  Robert  Louis  Stevenson,  and  many  others  are  excellent. 

To  teach  this  subject  of  spontaneous  story  drawing  the  teacher 
must  be  a  keen  observer.  He  must  be  able  to  express  his  own  ideas, 
and,  to  teach  seeing,  he  must  himself  see.  The  child  must  be  un- 
hampered by  many  directions  as  to  what  to  draw,  in  placing  or  size. 
He  must  not  be  shown  pictures  to  assist  him  in  his  efforts.  All  the 
children's  drawings  must  be  summed  up  under  the  words,  impres- 
sion, EXPRESSION.  Great  care  must  be  taken  in  selecting  stories 
for  illustration.  Stories  should  be  short,  suggestive,  rather  than 
descriptive,  having  few  dramatic  situations.  They  should  in  a 
measure  be  within  a  child's  experience  and  of  direct  interest  to  him. 
No  exercise  employs  the  observing  faculties  of  the  child  better 
than  the  drawing  of  natural  things  or  objects,  as  their  infinite 
variety  of  form  and  color  demands  his  closest  attention  in  his  ef- 
forts to  picture  them.  Nature  study  connects  science,  nature,  and 
literature. 

Children  love  life  and  action.  Rapid  sketching  from  nature  of 
plant  and  animal  life  should  begin  in  the  lowest  grade.  The  range 
of  subjects  must  be  large,  consisting  chiefly  of  scenes  of  human 
interest,  with  human  figures  in  action  illustrating  episodes  in  his- 
tory and  literature,  events  in  the  children's  own  lives,  plants,  foli- 
age, vegetables,  fruits,  seeds,  insects,  and  animals.  Trees  and 
landscape  study  should  be  included  under  this  topic  also.  These 
all  are  of  special  interest  because  they  are  what  the  pupils  read 
about  and  study  the  most,  and  are  the  most  beautiful  to  them. 

At  first  the  work  tends  to  be  conventional,  but  repeated  effort 
thru  these  early  grades  will  result  in  greater  realism,  and  will  in 
the  subsequent  work  do  away  with  hardness  of  line  and  figure. 
Freedom  of  expression  is  the  keynote  to  success  in  all  this  work. 
Form  study  should  come  last  and  not  first.  It  should  consist 
of  building  with  blocks,  constructing  in  paper  and  clay  objects  of 


DRAWING  125 


interest  in  every  day  life,  drawing  of  groups  of  common  objects, 
these  being  carefully  selected  for  their  form  and  color.  Objects 
should  not  be  analyzed  for  their  shapes,  surfaces,  and  edges.  All 
such  knowledge  will  come  naturally  thru  their  uses.  Form  study 
of  common  objects  and  type  fonns  leads  to  a  classification  of  form, 
and  gives  form  ideals. 

Picture  study  begins  in  the  first  year  and  runs  thruout  the 
entire  course.  During  the  first  three  years  materials  for  such 
study  should  be  found  on  the  school-room  walls,  in  the  fomi  of 
small  photographs  and  prints  placed  before  the  pupils.  Pictures 
should  not  be  studied  in  an  analytic  way  in  these  grades,  but  the 
interest  should  center  in  the  thought  of  the  artist  as  related  to  the 
home  life  of  the  child,  in  animal  life,  and  in  the  beauties  of  nature 
which  surround  him. 

Color  is  studied  in  its  relation  to  nature  and  to  design.  School 
and  home  environment  influence  this.  The  leading  colors  in  the 
spectrum  are  studied,  and  for  the  purpose  of  fixing  these  colors 
standard  tablets  and  colored  crayons  are  used.  The  three  color 
box  in  water  colors  is  also  used,  and  with  this  the  child  is  able  thru 
right  guidance  to  study  and  interpret  color  as  he  finds  it  in  plant 
and  animal  life,  in  the  landscape  in  its  various  changes  of  season, 
in  manufactured  objects,  and  to  represent  the  beauty  of  color  as 
shown  in  design. 

THE  MEDIUMS  TO  BE  USED  IX  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

The  mediums  or  materials  to  be  used  in  drawing  must  be  de- 
termined by  the  nature  of  the  subjects  to  be  drawn,  as  well  as  by 
the  needs  of  the  pupils.  Teachers  cannot  confine  themselves  to 
fixed  methods  or  mediums.  It  is  for  them  to  make  the  child  feel 
the  power  given  him,  to  lead  him  to  express  himself  directly  and 
freely.  It  matters  little  by  what  means  it  is  done;  it  is  the  spirit 
of  the  work  not  the  medium  that  is  of  the  most  importance  to  him. 

Children  crave  reality.  Hence  the  child  must  be  given  medi- 
ums which  express  reality,  not  mere  outline.  Soft  plastic  medi- 
ums, as  clay,  colored  crayons,  colored  chalk,  colored  paper,  water 
colors,  and  charcoal,  arc  the  best  with  which  to  express  mass,  and 
with  these  mediums  his  creative  activity  has  the  largest  possible 
freedom. 


126  DRAWING 


1.  Clay  modeling.  Natural  or  manufactured  objects.  This 
may  relate  to  form  study  for  its  ov/n  sake  or  it  may  illustrate  some 
lesson,  as  a  nature  lesson,  imaginative  or  illustrative  drawing  in 
reading  or  language.  Large  models  are  encouraged.  Early  work 
is  done  entirely  with  the  fingers.  Early  work  should  be  models  of 
natural  forms,  later  manufactured  objects;  geometric  solids  should 
rarely  be  attempted  in. primary  grades  on  account  of  the  difficulty 
of  making  them  accurate. 

Clay  modeling  cultivates  observation,  arousing  the  activities 
of  the  child ;  accuracy  in  the  perception  of  form ;  dexterity  of  hand ; 
sense  of  form  and  proportion;  greater  power  in  drawing,  due  to 
necessary  study  of  the  object  while  modeling;  love  and  appreciation 
of  beauty  in  form;  enjoyment  derived  thru  creative  power;  con- 
centration of  attention. 

Sand  modeling  on  the  sand-table  is  excellent  for  illustrative 
work  in  geography,  reading,  and  all  illustrative  work  in  the  primary 
grades. 

2.  Colored  crayons  and  colored  chalk.  These  are  a 
more  ready  means  for  picturing  objects  in  color,  with  very  young 
children,  than  water  colors. 

3.  Free  hand  paper  cutting.  In  color  and  in  black  and 
gray.  This  medium  leads  to  the  study  of  masses  of  form  and  rela- 
tion of  size  and  detail.  Color  is  studied  thru  color  combinations 
as  seen  in  nature  and  in  pictorial  combinations.  Stories  are  told 
with  the  scissors,  using  black  or  some  neutral  toned  paper.  All 
this  work  must  be  mounted  on  suitable  backgrounds. 

4.  Water  colors.  The  three  color  box  and  brush  number 
three.  In  this  medium  the  mixture  of  color  and  the  handling  of 
the  brush  are  more  difficult  than  work  done  with  colored  chalk  or 
crayon.  Using  the  brush  for  ink  brush  work  leads  the  pupil  to  be- 
come acquainted  somewhat  with  the  management  of  the  brush. 
Early  work  in  water  colors  should  include  the  rendering  of  large 
objects  and  landscapes;  work  in  which  detail  is  not  essential. 
Simplicity  of  expression  and  directness  in  the  handling  of  medium 
are  the  important  features  of  this  work. 

5.  Charcoal  drawings  on  large  sheets  of  manilla  paper  give 
the  child  a  freedom  to  express  form,  size,  and  color. 


DRAWING  127 


G.  The  blackboard  is  a  very  ready  means  of  expression  in 
drawing,  both  for  the  teacher  and  for  the  pupil.  It  insures  a  free- 
dom which  no  other  medium  can  give.  The  blackboard  should  be 
very  frequently  used  for  object  drawing  and  illustrative  work. 

7.  When  the  lead  pencil  is  used  it  should  be  a  very  soft 
grade,  so  that  it  may  express  both  color  and  form,  thus  avoiding 
hardness  of  figure  and  outline. 

In  the  primary  grades  the  drawing  occupies  twenty  minutes 
each  school  day  in  the  week.  Good  reference  material  —  Prang 
Manuals  for  First  and  Second  Year,  Monthly  Primary  Plans  in  the 
School  Art  Book,  Art  Education  text-books  for  the  First  and 
Second  Yea'-''. 

II.     SUBJFXT  MATTER 
FIRST  GRADE 
fall  term 

Much  blackboard  drawing  should  be  encouraged  at  this  time. 
It  can  be  done  on  a  large  scale  because  it  admits  of  more  freedom 
than  other  mediums.  Some  time  each  day  should  be  devoted  to 
this.  Color  is  taught  by  the  use  of  colored  tablets  and  water  color 
crayons.  Brush  work  is  taught  with  writing  ink  or  neutral  colors 
from  the  water  color  box.  In  Nature  work  study  seeds  and  seed- 
houses,  fruits,  vegetables,  nature  in  the  landscape;  October  and  its 
beauty  of  color  in  landscape,  tree,  and  leaf.  In  November  the 
thought  of  the  harvest,  corn  and  grains,  fruits,  and  vegetables. 
Parts  from  the  story  of  Hiawatha  relating  to  the  harvest.  In  ani- 
mal study,  the  squirrel  and  the  turkey.  The  winter  homes  of 
caterpillars.  The  storing  of  grain  and  food  for  the  winter.  Migra- 
tion of  birds. 

Illustrative  work,  relating  this  to  block-building,  sand-table 
modeUng.  The  Life  of  the  Pilgrims.  Nature  poems  illustrated. 
Making  of  seed  boxes. 

Clay  modeling.  This  is  imaginative  and  illustrative;  cocoons, 
animals,  fruits. 

Paper  folding  and  free-hand  paper  cutting.  Imaginative  and 
illustrative. 


128  DRAWING 


Sketching  in  colored  crayons  flowers,  berries,  seeds,  and  fruits; 
also  the  beauties  in  nature  as  shown  in  the  landscape  in  trees  and 
foliage. 

Teach  drawing  of  objects  like  sphere  and  cube,  relating  these 
to  block-building,  natural  forms,  and  common  objects.  This  re- 
quires critical  observation.  Teach  paper  folding;  a  market  basket, 
a  ship,  a  Puritan  cape  and  cap. 

Picture  study.  Harvest  scenes  by  Millet,  Jules  Breton,  and 
Broughton's  pictures  of  Pilgrims.  No  technical  study  should  be 
made  of  pictures,  but  they  may  frequently  serve  as  a  background 
for  a  morning  talk  or  for  an  illustrative  lesson. 

Let  the  drawing  lesson  frequently  follow  the  morning  talk. 
This  may  be  in  the  nature  of  imaginative  or  illustrative  drawing 
with  mediimis  which  are  the  most  suitable  to  work  demanded. 

WINTER    TERM 

Continue  blackboard  work.     Study  the  evergreen  tree. 

Paper  cutting;  for  illustration,  snow  flakes.  Cat  and  dog  are 
studied;  action  studies  made  from  life.  Games  of  children;  indoor 
and  outdoor  games,  action  study.  No  formal  posing.  Imaginative 
dravring  continued;  illustrative  drawing  used  in  all  the  depart- 
ments of  work.  Building  a  fireplace,  a  blockhouse,  a  bridge,  a 
train;  illustrate  this  in  paper  cutting  also.  Christmas  gifts;  hand 
work,  constructive  ability.  Study  of  pictures  continued;  home  life; 
animal  life;  the  Madonna  and  Christ-child. 

In  the  study  of  the  landscape  at  this  season  considerable  at- 
tention should  be  given  to  proper  composition. 

Object  study.  This  study  to  be  worthy  of  its  place  in  the 
school  must  show  the  individual  thought  and  expression  of  the  pu- 
pil. The  teacher  must  see  thru  the  child's  eyes  to  be  able  to  guide 
and  direct  him  to  expression. 

Choose  large  objects  good  in  color  and  fonn.  Study  size,  pro- 
portion, relation,  and  position  of  detail  to  whole.  Charcoal 
sketches.     Color  work  in  paper  and  crayon. 

Draw  from  a  pose,  make  it  represent  a  character  or  an  occupa- 
tion.    Local  winter  birds.     How  they  live  and  obtain  their  food. 

St.  Valentine's  Day;  a  post-man,  a  letter  box.  Make  valen- 
tines. 


DRAWING  129 


Playing  of  games  and  illustrating  soldiers  in  pose  and  marching. 
The  study  of  the  flag.     Block-building;  relate  this  to  history  study. 

The  children  of  the  cold  studied;  how  they  live;  their  houses, 
the  landscape,  how  they  dress,  what  they  eat  and  how  they  obtain 
their  food;  games  that  these  children  play,  winter  sports.  Illus- 
trative and  imaginative.  Incidents  in  the  lives  of  the  children  of 
the  cold.  Illustrate  these  in  clay,  paper,  blackboard  drawings, 
sand  table  modelings  and  constructions,  and  in  charcoal  sketches. 

Designing;  borders  for  book  covers,  handkerchiefs.  Paper 
folding;  diameters,  diagonals,  and  the  pasting  of  squares  and  tri- 
angles. Use  blocked  paper,  especially  where  the  geometric  figure 
serves  as  a  basis  for  the  decoration.  Children's  portfolios  contain 
by  this  time  sketches  from  life  of  animals  and  insects,  also  fall  fruits 
and  flowers.     These  make  very  good  units  for  decorative  repeats. 

SPRING    TERM 

Illustrated  stories.  March  weather;  the  wind.  Study  the 
willow  tree,  pussy  willows,  and  other  budding  twigs.  Awakening 
of  all  things;  return  of  the  birds,  the  spring  landscape.  The  rain- 
bow; color  study  with  the  prism.  Moths  and  butterflies.  Bulbs, 
seeds.  Continue  board  work  in  all  this  study.  Children  in  action 
from  class  games,  dramatic  poses,  occupations. 

In  designing,  use  is  made  of  natural  forms,  plant,  animal,  or 
insect.  Designs  are  made  for  book  covers,  folders  for  nature  exer- 
cises, simple  borders,  and  surface  designs.  Study  for  this  purpose 
repetition. 

Paper-cutting  for  illustrative  work;  gcnnination  of  seeds. 
Brush  ink  work  is  also  excellent  for  this.  Crayon  and  charcoal 
drawings,  water  colors,  using  the  three  color  box.  Neutral  colors 
used  occasionally. 

Placing  within  given  spaces  landscapes,  objects  in  groups, 
plants,  and  flowers  for  space  relation.  The  tulip  is  studied  for  de- 
signing purposes.  Its  size  and  simplicity  of  form  commend  it  for 
this  purpose.  Its  vividness  of  color  makes  it  also  attractive  to  the 
child. 

Block-building  continued.  Interest  may  center  about  the 
birdhouse.     Let  children  build  this. 


130  DRAWING 


Making  in  paper  and  cardboard  May  baskets,  and  folders  for 
drawing  work  to  be  taken  home.  Picture  frames  and  small  folders 
for  picture  study. 

Animals  to  be  studied;  the  rabbit,  the  chicken,  the  turtle. 

Clay-modeling;  the  rabbit,  the  butterfly. 

Spring  flowers;  the  teacher  choosing  the  larger  flowers,  study- 
ing occasionally  the  entire  plant  with  its  blossoms. 

SECOND  AND  THIRD  GRADES 

FALL    TERM 

The  mediums  in  these  grades  are  like  those  of  the  first  grade, 
with  the  addition  of  the  lead  pencil  and  more  water  color  work  and 
less  free-hand  paper  cutting.     Brush  and  ink  used  more  freely  also. 

The  work  in  these  grades  is  continued  much  as  in  the  first 
grade.  New  and  more  difficult  objects  are  given.  The  work  done 
by  the  children  should  show  more  freedom  in  the  handling  of  the 
material,  greater  skill  in  representing  objects,  better  composition 
and  space  relation.  The  self-activity  of  the  child  rightly  stimu- 
lated from  the  first  to  create,  to  illustrate,  and  to  see  should  mani- 
fest itself  in  every  department  of  this  work. 

Water  colors  are  used  from  the  very  first,  the  work  in  the 
early  fall  being  largely  from  nature.  Make  color  analysis  of  all 
things  studied  directly  from  nature.  Make  color  charts.  The 
study  of  the  landscape  from  nature  study  and  from  description. 
The  study  of  leaves,  flowers  and  insects;  these  to  be  used  in  ele- 
mentary and  applied  design  of  book  covers,  program  covers,  port- 
folio ornaments.  Simple  geometric  forms  and  figures  introduced 
relating  to  the  ellipsoid.  The  geometric  plan  traced  in  seeds  and 
seed  vessels.  Making  of  seed  boxes  and  cases.  The  use  of  insect 
and  animal  life  in  design.  Use  blocked  paper  for  the  purpose  of 
aiding  the  modification  of  units  of  design. 

Illustrate  the  changes  in  the  dandelion  plant,  the  milkweed, 
and  the  thistle. 

Color  study  is  continued.  The  spectrum  with  tints  and  shades 
is  studied.  Colored  tablets  for  color  arrangements  and  color  re- 
lations. Colored  crayons  and  water  colors  are  used  to  make  color 
combinations. 

In  October  some  time  is  given  to  the  study  of  trees  and  their 
lacing  in  a  landscape. 


DRAWING  131 


Illustrative  work  relating  to  the  season.  Imaginative  draw- 
ing. This  work  must  be  entirely  unhampered  by  the  teacher;  the 
pupil  must  tell  his  story  in  his  own  way.  Criticisms  may  be  made 
of  incorrect  proportions  for  the  purpose  of  stimulating  observation 
and  self-activity.  This  kind  of  work  may  relate  to  the  reading 
lesson.     Brush  ink-work  is  excellent  for  this. 

Study  the  apple  tree.     Make  general  study  of  other  fruit  trees. 

In  November;  harvest  scenes,  the  gathering  in  of  the  harvest. 
Landscapes  illustrative  of  reading  lessons,  nature  study,  and  imag- 
inative drawing.  The  corn  especially  is  studied.  Fruits  and  vege- 
tables are  painted,  drawn,  and  modeled.  The  life  of  the  Puritans 
illustrated  in  sand-table  modeling,  making  in  clay,  cardboard,  and 
block-building.     A  costume  pose  in  action. 

Birds  and  their  migration. 

Picture  study;  harvest  scenes,  landscapes  for  composition,  and 
tree  study.  Choose  for  these  the  best  pictures  by  the  best  artists. 
Boughton's  pictures  for  historic  interest,  composition,  and  costume 
study. 

WINTER    TERM 

Drawing  from  groups  of  large  and  interesting  objects.  Char- 
coal study,  colored  crayons  and  water  colors.  Some  blackboard 
work  should  be  attempted  frequently;  this  insures  greater  freedom, 
hence  greater  confidence.  Study  a  piece  of  furniture;  this  is  for 
the  purpose  of  study  of  size,  proportion,  and  appearance  thru 
position.  Pencil  drawing  should  be  encouraged.  Block-building 
of  historic  buildings.  Rapid  sketching  of  a  single  object  placed  in 
various  positions.  These  sketches  should  be  large  and  made  in 
charcoal.  In  a  single  lesson  each  child  should  make  from  three  to 
four  different  sketches,  each  showing  the  careful  study  in  appear- 
ance as  influenced  by  position.  Block-building  continued,  sketch- 
ing results.  Study  of  objects  for  placing  and  color  combinations. 
The  cone,  pyramid,  and  triangular  prism  are  studied  with  a  review 
of  the  first  year  solids.  Children  should  be  led  to  see  that  how  an 
object  appears  to  them  is  more  essential  than  how  it  actually  looks 
in  its  individual  parts.  Encourage  the  making  of  sketches  of  inter- 
esting objects.  All  object  study  should  lead  toward  better  work 
in  illustrative  drawing. 

Study  of  the  winter  landscape;  color,  composition,  the  sunset, 
gtudy  of  trees  in  winter;  the  pine  tree. 


132  DRAWING 


Figure  study;  the  poses  being  more  varied,  the  pupils  working 
with  pencil,  charcoal,  water  colors  in  color  and  neutral. 

Construction  work  in  paper  and  other  suitable  materials  for 
Christmas  gifts. 

Picture  study  appropriate  to  the  Christmas  season;  mounting 
of  pictures,  making  of  folders,  and  frames  for  pictures. 

Action  pictures;  winter  sports,  illustrative  and  imaginative 
sketches  made.  Animal  studies  from  life;  Barye  and  Landseer  are 
studied. 

Eskimo  life ;  reading  lessons  are  illustrated.  How  the  birds  are 
fed  in  winter.     Snow  crystals ;  studying  in  these  the  geometric  basis. 

Designing;  space  relation  studied  in  plaids  and  other  simple 
surface  designs,  opposition  of  line,  combination  of  colors.  The  use 
of  plant,  animal  and  insect  life  in  decoration;  naturalistic  as  well  as 
modified  treatment  of  these  units  in  border  and  surface  decorations. 

SPRING    TERM 

March  weather;  the  wind,  water  scenes,  ships,  windmills. 
Imaginative  and  illustrative  drawings  made  of  these. 

Poses;  dramatic  action.     Study  games. 

Buds  and  twigs  in  brush  ink  drawing  and  pencil  sketching. 

Colors  studied,  orange  and  blue  in  tints  and  shades;  decorative 
use  of  color:  how  combinations  should  be  made. 

Landscape;  study  of  the  rainbow;  relate  this  to  the  season. 
Illustrations  in  geography  in  painting  and  drawing. 

Seeds  and  their  germination,  pencil  and  brush  ink  drawings. 

Returning  of  the  birds.  Children  should  study  the  early  birds, 
especially  the  robin.  Paint  and  draw  from  observations  made. 
Repeat  this  study  when  opportunity  affords  and  it  will  lead  toward 
very  creditable  work.  Aim  to  have  the  criticisms  rather  lead  to 
further  and  more  careful  study.  Such  study  will  eventually  lead 
to  better  sketching. 

Spring  flowers  drawn  and  painted.  Pupils  should  be  required 
to  make  good  placing  on  paper,  special  attention  being  given  thru- 
out  this  work  to  arrangement  and  placing.  Flowers  placed  within 
limited  areas.  Flowers  used  in  design;  surface  and  border  designs 
made  for  definite  purposes.     Entire  plant  studied. 

Domestic  animals;  picture  study  of  animal  and  bird  life;  illus- 
trate the  pigeon-house. 


DRAWING  133 


Study  pictures  relating  to  season;  Dupre,  Millet,  and  Breton 
have  painted  excellent  pictures  relating  to  this  season.  Panto- 
mime pictures  are  excellent  here. 

FOURTH  AND  FIFTH  GRADES 

FALL    TER.M 

The  pupils  in  these  grades,  while  following  somewhat  similar 
work  to  that  carried  on  in  the  earlier  grades,  should  show  greater 
freedom  in  the  use  of  different  mediums.  Greater  mechanical  skill 
should  be  required  as  well  as  more  artistic  rendering  in  all  work. 
More  definite  and  detailed  work  is  reciuired  in  the  illustration  of 
geography  and  science  work. 

It  is  not  a  greater  amount  of  drawing  which  will  bring  better 
results  in  expression,  but  better  seeing  and  thinking.  The  illus- 
trative work  is  of  little  value  unless  it  is  the  expression  of  thought. 

By  the  use  of  drawings,  illustrations,  and  the  plants  themselves 
the  pupils  should  become  interested  in  the  beauty  of  line  in  the 
growth  of  plants.  Study  of  artistic  reproductions  of  Japanese 
prints  showing  the  simple  rendering  of  plant  and  animal  life  will 
greatly  influence  the  pupils'  work  in  spirit  and  freedom  of  execu- 
tion. Fall  plants  and  flowers  should  be  studied  and  drawn  in  color, 
in  monochrome,  and  in  brush  ink  drawings.  Plants  should  be  se- 
lected for  beauty  in  form  and  color,  this  followed  by  using  only 
most  beautiful  parts  if  plant  is  large.  Study  arrangements  of 
plants  within  given  areas  for  decorative  treatment.  This  requires 
individual  creation  in  space  relation  thru  the  division  of  spaces  and 
surface  areas  into  vertical  and  horizontal  paneling,  and  the  placing 
of  simple  landscape  features,  flowers,  vines,  and  grasses  within 
them.  Designs  for  books  and  program  covers  should  be  made. 
Insects  —  the  grasshopper,  the  cricket,  and  the  beetle —  are  studied 
for  decorative  treatment. 

The  landscape  is  studied  in  color  and  in  monochrome,  in  pencil, 
and  in  charcoal.  Composition  in  this  is  studied  in  relation  to  color 
tones  and  values.  Illustrations  in  pencil,  pen  and  ink,  and  other 
suitable  mediums  should  aid  geography,  written  compositions,  and 
other  studies. 

Study  of  the  principles  of  perspective  as  illustrated  in  cylin- 
drical forms  and  rectangular  forms  is  here  introduced.     Develop 


134  DRAWING 


self-activity,  concentration,  observation.  Lead  pupils  thru  free 
expression  of  what  they  see  to  discover  first  the  principles.  Select 
very  large  objects  for  this  study.  The  geometric  solids  should 
follow  the  study  of  common  objects. 

Picture  study  is  continued.  Japanese  prints  of  flowers,  in- 
sects, and  birds  are  studied.  Several  of  Millet's  pictures  are  stud- 
ied, especially  those  which  relate  to  the  harvest  season.  These  will 
materially  aid  the  pupils  in  the  further  study  of  composition  in 
the  landscape. 

WINTER    TERM 

In  the  winter  term  the  general  plan  of  work  relates  to  the  more 
critical  study  of  common  objects.  These  should  always  be  chosen 
for  their  utility  or  for  their  beauty  of  form  and  color.  Selection 
and  placing  of  objects  should  be  considered,  also  the  proper  lighting. 

In  connection  with  the  sketching  of  groups  of  objects  the  study 
of  light  and  shade  is  begun.  The  best  mediums  for  this  work  are 
charcoal  or  crayon,  and  water  colors.  The  light  and  shade  should 
be  rendered  in  broad  simple  tones  with  no  attempt  at  showing  de- 
tails. Begin  with  crayon  or  pencil  point,  water  colors  to  follow. 
Light  and  shade  values  and  color  tones  studied.  Relation  of  light 
and  shade  values  in  composition.  Balance  of  tone,  balance  of 
color  in  composition.     Relate  this  to  picture  study  also. 

Historic  art  and  ornament  are  introduced  here.  This  study 
relates  to  simple  styles  of  architecture  and  ornament  as  seen  in 
buildings,  in  photographs  of  buildings,  and  in  casts. 

Drawing  from  the  pose.  This  should  be  for  costume  study  or 
to  illustrate  some  occupation.  This  work  should  be  illustrated  by 
artistic  drawings  from  the  pose.  Study  in  this  connection  the 
pictures  of  such  artists  and  illustrators  as  will  aid  in  pose  drawing. 

The  dog  is  studied  in  pencil,  crayon,  and  in  charcoal.  Memory 
drawings,  sketching  rapidly  with  straight  lines  only.  Brush  work 
in  neutral  wash  drawings  to  obtain  mass  and  general  form.  Rapid 
sketches  showing  the  animal  in  different  positions,  merely  repre- 
senting action,  as  well  as  drawings  showing  more  deliberate  study 
and  consequently  more  detailed  study  of  animal. 

Construction  drawings  showing  simple  working  drawings  of 
common  objects;  this  followed  by  making  in  paper  and  wood. 

Illustrative  and  imaginative  drawings  are  continued  in  geog- 
raphy, nature  study,  and  reading. 


DRAWING  135 

In  picture  study  Murillo  and  his  pictures  arc  studii-d,  those 
picturing  child  life  being  of  special  interest  here. 

SPRING    TERM 

Color  is  studied  in  its  relation  to  design.  Color  tones,  color 
harmonies  and  relations  as  seen  in  the  spectrum  with  their  tints 
and  shades  are  studied.  In  design  plaids  and  surface  decoration 
are  made.  Historic  art  relating  to  design  is  studied  and  patterns 
for  stained  glass  windows  are  made. 

The  landscape  is- studied  with  sky  and  clouds. 

Buds  and  twigs,  sprouting  seeds.  These  should  be  drawn  in 
pencil,  in  brush  and  ink,  or  in  pen  and  ink.  Special  attention 
should  be  given  to  the  arrangement  and  proper  mounting  of  this 
material. 

Bird  life  of  the  locality  should  be  studied  thru  the  use  of 
museum  specimens  and  observations  made  of  the  birds  as  they 
return  in  the  spring.  Considerable  illustrative  work  may  be  done 
in  connection  with  this  study.  The  moth  and  the  butterfly  are 
studied  and  are  treated  in  a  conventional  manner  in  design. 

SIXTH  AND  SEVENTH  GRADES 

FALL    TERM 

Less  time  is  given  to  blackboard  work  and  more  to  water  colors 
and  pencil  drawing.  Clay  is  omitted  except  when  used  for  some 
special  study  in  design.  Much  of  the  illustrative  work  is  done  in 
pen  and  ink.  The  study  of  some  of  the  best  modern  illustrators 
and  their  methods  of  work  is  taken  up  at  this  time.  The  Japanese 
art  of  drawing  with  the  brush  is  studied.  In  this  study  drawings 
are  made  of  seeds  and  seed-pods,  grasses  and  vines,  insects  and 
animal  life.  Natural  forms  of  all  kinds  are  also  studied  and 
sketched  in  pencil,  crayon,  and  water  colors;  the  aim  is  to  lead  the 
pupils  to  work  directly  and  freely  with  the  mediums  best  suited  to 
the  subjects  studied. 

The  landscape  is  sketched  in  all  of  its  changes  of  color,  and 
color  values  are  illustrated  in  charcoal  gray  and  in  sepia,  in  crayon 
and  pencil.     Some  outdoor  sketching  is  attempted. 

Elementary  and  applied  designs  arc  made.  Flat  washes  of 
color  for  decorative  purposes  are  introduced.  Plant  forms,  animals, 
and  insects  are  used  for  designing  book  covers,  portfolio-covers,  and 


136  DRAWING 


for  the  purpose  of  note  book  illustrations.  Abstract  treatment  of 
animal,  insect,  and  plant  life.  Use  of  blocked  paper  for  this  pur- 
pose. Decorative  treatment  of  the  landscape.  Study  mural  art 
and  its  decorative  qualities.  "American  Mural  Art"  as  given  by 
Pauline  King  is  an  excellent  book  to  study 

WINTER    TERM 

Study  of  composition  in  the  landscape,  making  of  window 
sketches,  the  study  of  common  objects.  The  materials  and  medi- 
ums to  be  used  in  this  instruction  should  be  determined  by  the 
nature  of  the  subjects  to  be  drawn,  as  v\-ell  as  by  the  needs  of  the 
pupils.  The  pencil  and  crayon  point  with  occasional  use  of  colored 
crayons  and  water  colors  are  the  most  convenient  and  best  medi- 
ums for  much  of  this  work. 

Perspective  principles  are  analyzed  and  illustrated.  Choose 
large  objects  of  good  color  and  design  for  this  purpose. 

Form  and  color  in  correct  compositions  within  given  areas, 
the  study  of  light  and  shade,  and  the  value  of  background  and 
foreground  illustrated. 

Historic  art  as  illustrated  in  architecture  and  ornament  is  given 
with  special  study  in  Greek,  Roman,  and  Byzantine  art. 

The  study  of  pictures  is  continued. 

Illustrated  work  in  geography,  history,  and  science.  Making 
of  portfolios,  mounting  of  pictures  suitable  for  picture  study  and 
illustration. 

The  human  figure  studied.  Class  poses  for  action  and  costume 
study. 

Constructive  design  and  working  drawings  as  applied  to  work 
in  manual  training  are  drawn  in  full  size  and  to  scale. 

SPRING    TERM 

The  work  done  this  term  relates  somewhat  to  the  season,  but 
the  latter  is  not  so  closely  followed  as  in  the  lower  grades.  Con- 
siderable time  is  given  to  rapid  sketching  in  pencil  and  crayon,  con- 
necting this  especially  with  the  illustrative  work.  These  sketches 
are  later  completed  in  pen  and  ink  and  in  wash  drawings.  Color  is 
not  used  as  frequently  here  as  in  the  lower  grades,  but  some  time  is 
given  to  the  study  of  tone  in  color  and  its  application  in  nature  and 
in  art. 


DRAWING  137 


Spring  flowers  are  drawn  and  painted.  The  beauty  of  line  is 
studied  in  the  plant  as  a  whole  and  in  its  jiarts.  The  study  of  de- 
sign is  continued. 

Color  is  translated  in  wash  drawings,  in  charcoal  gray,  and 
sepia,  and  designs  are  made  for  printed  fabrics,  stained  glass,  rugs, 
and  wall  paper. 

The  spring  landscape  is  studied  and  is  painted  and  drawn  dur- 
ing its  various  changes.  The  landscapes  of  Corot  especially  are 
studied. 

The  Prang  Teachers'  Manuals  for  the  sixth  and  seventh  grades 
are  frequently  used  for  reference. 

EIGHTH  GRADE 

FALL    TERM 

In  the  early  work  done  in  the  fall  fruits  and  flowers  are  sketched 
in  the  various  mediums.  Considerable  brush  ink  work  on  rice 
paper  and  other  suitable  paper  is  done.  Vines,  fruits,  flowers, 
foliage,  and  grasses  are  treated  in  a  decorative  manner,  in  areas 
adapted  to  the  material  chosen.  Skill  in  selection  of  material  and 
adapting  it  to  a  purpose  is  required  from  the  pupils.  The  study  of 
Japanese  brush  drawings  and  Japanese  prints  is  very  helpful  here. 

Pupils  in  the  higher  grades  begin  to  understand  their  own  lim- 
itations and  those  of  the  different  mediums.  Then  they  become 
interested  in  the  adaptation  of  means  to  an  end.  They  become 
interested  in  line,  in  tone.  Considerable  work  is  now  done  in  flat 
tones  for  all  kinds  of  designing  purposes.  Surface  decorations,  de- 
signs for  limited  areas,  as  book  covers,  magazine  covers,  and  for 
various  otiier  applied  purposes.  Working  in  flat  tones  for  posters 
and  general  illustrative  effects.  Tile  and  carving  designs,  rug  pat. 
terns,  and  rug  making  studied.  Stained  glass  patterns  arc  made 
and  hannony  and  beauty  in  color  combinations  are  studied. 

Outdoor  sketchixg.  Principles  in  perspective  discovered  and 
analyzed.  Building  and  street  scenes  sketched.  The  pupils  must 
learn  to  pick  out  interesting  and  picturesque  bits  of  nature.  The 
teacher  should  aid  in  making  suggestions  as  to  what  to  look  for  and 
how  to  put  the  essentials  in  the  sketch,  directly  and  effectively. 
The  greatest  problem  is  to  see  things  simply  and  to  select  the  most 


138  DRAWING 


important  parts  from  a  mass  of  detail.  To  learn  what  to  omit  is  a 
very  important  part  of  outdoor  sketching.  Pupils  keep  sketch- 
books, recording  from  time  to  time  materials  which  will  aid  in  il- 
lustrative work  in  various  other  school  subjects.  The  lead  pencil 
is  the  most  convenient  medium  for  all  this  work.  It  may  be  trans- 
lated into  pen  and  ink  work  and  into  wash  drawings.  Study  of 
trees  in  various  mediums  showing  the  simple  treatment  of  masses 
of  foliage.  Pictures  by  the  best  landscape  painters  as  well  as  book 
and  magazine  illustrations  will  aid  greatly  in  "this  work.  The  pupils 
should  be  taught  to  observe  correctly  and  in  turn  to  correctly  record 
these  impressions.  Whatever  in  nature  can  be  utilized  to  express 
an  ideal  of  beauty,  that  the  pupils  should  lay  hold  of.  Paint  the 
landscape  in  its  various  changes  in  the  fall.  Make  compositions 
Illustrating  good  space  relations  and  good  color  values. 

WINTER    TERM 

Sketching  from  common  objects  of  all  kinds,  cylindrical,  conical, 
and  rectangular.  The  principles  underlying  the  appearance  of  ob- 
jects in  all  positions  discussed  and  illustrated.  This  should  only  be 
done  w^hen  pupils,  thru  correct  seeing  and  doing,  have  been  able 
to  discover  many  of  these  conditions  in  appearance  for  themselves. 

Still  life  studies.  Simplicity  is  of  the  greatest  importance 
both  in  the  arrangement  of  the  objects  and  in  the  lighting.  Not 
more  than  three  or  four  values  should  be  attempted  at  first.  Ob- 
jects should  be  selected  for  their  beauty  as  well  as  for  their  form. 
Pencil  and  crayon  drawings  precede  pen  and  ink  sketching.  Water 
colors  used  in  flat  tones.  Study  of  values  both  in  color  and  in 
neutral  tone. 

Historic  ornament  and  art  is  continued.  The  Saracenic  art  is 
studied  and  examples  of  design  are  copied.  The  Romanesque  and 
Gothic  art  and  architecture  are  also  studied.  Sketches  of  buildings 
and  parts  of  buildings  are  made  as  well  as  detail  of  ornament. 
Some  of  the  works  of  Raphael  and  Michael  Angelo  are  studied  and 
note  book  illustrations  are  made.  Proper  mounting  of  pictures  is 
continued. 

Constructive  design  and  working  drawings  are  made  to  scale. 

Illuminated  letters  and  ornamental  initials  are  made.  Illu- 
minated and  hand-printed  manuscripts  are  studied,  especially  those 


DRAWING  139 


relating  to  Romanesque  and  Gothic  periods.  Original  designs  for 
letters  and  stained  glass  are  made;  also  designs  to  be  applied  to 
textiles,  pottery  and  metal. 

Study  of  the  human  figure,  action,  proportions,  and  expression. 
Class  poses.  Costume  studies.  Pupils  led  to  observe  the  works  and 
methods  of  the  masters,  both  in  painting  and  in  sculpture.  Color 
and  texture  treated  in  light  and  dark  tones.  These  give  desired 
effects  in  a  figure  without  the  use  of  light  and  shade.  Study  the 
work  of  Boutet  de  Monvel  and  others.  One  indispensable  need  in 
all  illustrative  drawing  is  knowledge  of  the  human  figure  and  how 
to  use  it  in  action.     Pupils  must  be  able  to  use  it  in  action  freely. 

All  illustrative  work  done  in  the  various  subjects  should  show 
the  influence  of  instruction  in  drawing. 

SPRING    TERM 

Pen  and  pencil  sketching  for  illustrative  work  continued. 
Considerable  sketching  from  nature.  Bird  life  studied  and  sketches 
made  from  birds  of  locality.  Spring  flowers  drawn  and  painted. 
Posters  made  for  various  school  exercises.  Written  w'ork  illustrated 
and  decorated  with  initial  letters.  Outdoor  and  memory  sketches 
made  in.  charcoal,  pencil,  pen  and  ink,  and  water  colors.  Color  as 
related  to  its  uses  in  design  studied.     Program  covers  made. 

The  pencil  should  ever  be  the  readiest  means  of  expression  in 
all  drawing  and  illustrative  work.  There  is  no  other  medium  which 
offers  greater  opportunity  for  the  development  of  simplicity  in 
manner,  power  and  directness  in  treatment,  and  refinement  in  ex- 
pression than  drawing  with  the  lead  pencil.  A  w^ell  rendered  pencil 
drawing  must  be  simple  and  direct,  its  beauty  depending  upon 
quality  of  line  and  purity  and  strength  of  tone. 

The  study  of  art  as  outlined  by  the  different  systems  in  drawing 
is  valuable  to  the  grade  teacher  only  as  a  guide  to  art  expression. 
The  art  of  feeling  must  penetrate  into  all  expression  work  as  litera- 
ture, science  and  history ;  and  painting  and  drawing  should  be 
quite  as  freely  used  a  means  of  expression  as  language.  A  system 
in  drawing  which  encourages  imitation  only  is  not  worthy  of  a 
place  in  a  school  course. 

The  work  as  outlined  in  this  course  is  influenced  by  the  work 
as  planned  for  the  grades  in  Text  books  of  Art  Education,  Prang; 
The  Manual  Arts  for  Elementary  Schools,  Hammock;  The  Parallel 


140 


DRAWING 


Course,  Hammock;  The  Applied  Arts  Drawing  Books,  Seegmiller; 
Principles  of  Design,  Batchelder;  The  Grammar  of  Ornament,  Jones; 
Ornament  and  its  Application,  Day;  History  of  Architecture,  Fer- 
guson; History  of  Art,  Goodyear;  Schools  and  Masters  of  Painting, 
Radcliffe;  Schools  and  Masters  of  Sculpture,  Radcliffe;  How  to 
Study  Pictures,  CafiEin;  American  Masters  of  Painting,  Caffin; 
American  Masters  of  Sculpture,  Caffin;  The  History  of  Modern 
Painting,  Muther;  The  Enjoyment  of  Art,  Noyes;  The  Gate  of  Ap- 
preciation, Noyes;  Old  Masters  and  New,  Cox;  Art  for  Art's  Sake, 
Van  Dyke;  The  Meaning  of  Pictures,  Van  Dyke;  How  to  Judge  of  a 
Picture,  Van  Dyke;  The  Enjoyment  of  Pictures,  Emery;  American 
Mural  Painting,  King;  Lives  of  the  Painters,  Vasari;  Composition, 
Dow;  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art,  Dow;  The  Principles 
of  Art  Education,  Muensterberg;  Art  Education  in  the  Public  Schools 
of  the  United  States,  J.  P.  Haney,  Editor. 


MANUAL  TRAINING  141 


MANUAL  TRAINING 
I.     INTRODUCTION 

Impression  and  expression  are  so  intimately  related  that  both 
suffer  if  one  is  emphasized  without  reference  to  the  other.  To  give 
a  child  an  opportunity  to  express  himself  in  material  is  a  very  great 
aid  to  his  thought;  and,  vice  versa,  to  have  him  think  before  he 
thus  tries  to  express  himself,  is  a  great  aid  to  the  expression.  Too 
much  thinking,  and  too  much  doing  are  equally  bad  extremes.  A 
thought  may  be  the  result  of  a  moment's  activity,  or  it  may  be  the 
outcome  of  the  activity  of  a  life-time.  The  doing  may  take  a 
longer  or  shorter  time  than  the  thinking.  In  thought  we  may  take 
a  trip  to  Europe  in  less  time  than  it  takes  to  tell  it,  while  the  actual 
doing  requires  physical  effort  of  long  duration.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  thinking  out  of  a  collar  button  superior  to  any  now  on  the  mar- 
ket may  take  ten  years,  while  the  actual  making  of  it  may  take  only 
ten  seconds.  But  the  original  thinking  which  invents  new  things 
such  as  the  collar  button,  is  comparatively  rare,  while  imitative 
thinking  is  common  to  all  the  pupils  coming  under  our  care.  Imi- 
tative work  requires  more  time  in  the  doing  than  in  the  thinking, 
and  is  common  in  manual  training,  although  thinking  always  ac- 
companies  the  doing. 

Thus  the  great  end  of  manual  training  is  education  tliru  doing 
guided  by  thinking;  but  there  are  other  important  ends  as  well, 
among  which  are  (1)  The  revelation  to  the  pupil  of  himself,  and  his 
capabihties.  This  enables  us  to  aid  in  the  production  of  true  and 
helpful  citizens  by  guiding  the  pupil  toward  the  realization  of  his 
purpose  in  life;  and  (2)  The  cultivation  of  that  nature  which  enables 
one  to  appreciate  another's  views,  work,  and  condition.  This  tends 
to  democracy  —  to  oneness  —  to  an  understanding  of  the  other 
person's  situation. 

Our  work  in  this  subject  is  flexibly  organized  so  that  the  dif- 
ficulties involved  come  within  the  pupils'  interests,  needs,  and  abili- 
ties.    The  possibilities,  limitations,  and  applications  in  the  use  of 


142  MANUAL  TRAINING 


raffia,  reed,  card,  yarn,  cardboard,  clay,  sheet-iron,  brass,  copper 
and  wood,  together  with  the  typical  and  essential  processes  em- 
ployed, are  emphasized. 

Tho  construction,  and  proportion  are  considered  of  first  im- 
portance, typical  methods  of  decoration  are  dealt  with  thruout  the 
course  as  a  recognition  of  the  craving  among  all  peoples  for  some 
form  of  ornamentation  (even  of  merely  useful  articles) .  Outlining 
with  the  veining  tool,  chip  carving,  mass  coloring,  flat  and  relief 
carving,  inlaying,  and  applied  metal  work  are  used  as  the  occasion 
allows,  and  the  pupils'  ability  warrants. 

Correlation  with  other  subjects  is  encouraged,  and  pupils  are 
allowed  to  put  in  extra  time  upon  pieces  of  independent  work  chosen 
as  a  result  of  some  special  interest. 

REFERENCES 

MAGAZINES 

For  the  Teacher:  Manual  Training  Magazine,  School  Arts 
Book,  International  Studio,  Woodcraft. 

For  Pupils;  Popular  Mechanics,  Popular  Electricity,  Electri- 
cian and  Mechanic,  Organization  Reports;  The  Council  of  Super- 
visors of  the  Manual  Arts,  Eastern  Art  and  Manual  Training  Asso- 
ciation, Western  Drawing  and  Manual  Training  Association,  Illinois 
Manual  Arts  Association. 

BOOKS 

*General,  (see  below). 

Cardboard,  weaving  and  basketry — 

Handwork  Construction  —  Lina  Eppendorff. 

Cardboad  Construction  —  J.  H.  Try  bom. 

Occupations  for  Little  Fingers  —  Sage  and  Cooley. 

Industrial  Work  for  Public  Schools  —  Holton  and  Rollins. 

Hand-Loom  Weaving  —  Mattie  Phipps  Todd. 

Primary  Handwork  —  Wilhemina  Seegmiller. 

Rug  Weaving  —  Cadence  Wheeler. 

Indian  Basketry  —  James. 

Practical  and  Artistic  Basketry  —  Laura  Rollins  Tinsley. 

The  Basket  Maker  —  Luther  Weston  Turner. 

How  to  Make  Baskets  —  Mary  White. 

Knotting  and  Splicing  —  Paul  Hasluck. 
Clay  work — 

Clay  Work  —  Katherine  M.  Lester. 

Modeling  in  Public  Schools  —  Walter  Sargent. 


MANUAL  TRAINING  143 


Clay  Modeling  and  Plaster  Casting  —  Paul  N.  Hasluck. 
Potters,  Their  Arts  and  Crafts  —  Sparks  and  Gandy. 
The  Story  of  The  Potter  —  C.  F.  Binns. 
How  to  Make  Pottery  —  Mary  White. 
The  Appreciation  of  Sculpture  —  Russel  Sturgis. 
American  Masters  of  Sculpture  —  Charles  H.  Caflhn. 
Mythology  in  Marble  —  Louie  M.  Bell. 

Michelangelo,  Greek  Sculpture,  and  Tuscan  Sculpture  —  E.  M. 
Hurl. 

Metal  work — 

Copper  Work  —  Augustus  F.  Rose. 

The  Art  Crafts  for  Beginners  —  Frank  G.  Sanford. 

Silvervs'ork  and  Jewelry  —  H.  Wilson. 

Venetian  Iron  Work  Designs  —  Hammacher,  Schlemmer  &  Co. 

Woodwork — 

Essentials  of  Woodworking  —  Ira  S.  Griffith. 

Beginning  Woodwork  —  Clinton  S.  Van  Deusen. 

Problems  in  W^oodworking  —  M.  W.  Murray. 

Problems  in  Furniture  Making  —  Fred  D.  Crawshaw. 

Sloyd  for  the  Three  Upper  Grammar  Grades  —  Gustaf  Larson. 

Practical  Wood-Carving  —  Eleanor  Rowe. 

Chip-Carving  —  Gustaf  Larson. 

Puzzles  Old  and  New  —  Professor  Hoffman. 

Handbook  of  the  Trees  of  the  Northern  States  and  Canada  — 

Romeyn  B.  Hough. 
Problems  in  Mechanical  Drawing  —  Charles  A.   Bennett. 
Mechanical  Drawing  for  Grammar  Grades  —  Edmund  Ketch- 
um. 

Design — 

Handbook  of  Ornament  —  F.  S.  Meyer. 
Composition  —  Arthur  W.  Dow. 
Principles  of  Design  —  Ernest  A.  Batchelder. 
Classroom  Practice  in  Design  —  James  P.  Haney. 
A  Handbook  of  Plant  Form  —  Ernest  E.  Clark. 
Furniture  Design  and  Draughting  —  A.  C.  Nye. 

General — 

Economics  of  Manual  Training  —  Louis  Rouillion. 
The  Furnishing  of  a  Modest  Home  —  Fred  H.  Daniels. 
The  City  of  Refuge  —  H.  T.  Bailey. 
The  Appreciation  of  Architecture  —  Russell  Sturgis. 

For  the  Pupils — 

Harpers  Electricity  Book  for  Boys  —  J.  H.  Adams. 

The  Beard  Series  of  Handicraft  Books  for  Boys  and  Girls, 


144  MANUAL  TRAINING 


The  Thos.  M.  St.  John  Mechanical  and  Electrical  Books  for  Boys 

Woodworking  for  Beginners  —  C.  G.  Wheeler. 

Magical  Experiments  —  Arthur  Good. 

A  Boy's  Workshop  —  Henry  R.  Waite. 

The  Child  Housekeeper  —  Colson  &  Chittenden. 

The  Young  Engineer  —  Hammond  Hall. 

The  Boy  Craftsman  —  A.  N.  Hall. 

EQUIPMENT    AND    SUPPLIES 

For  Wood  and  Metal — 

Chandler  &  Barber,  Boston,  Mass. 
■  A.  L.  Bemis,  Worcester,  Mass. 
Belcher  &  Loomis  Hdw.  Co.,  Providence,  R.  I. 
Hammacher,  Schlemmer  &  Co.,  New  York. 
Grand  Rapids  Hand  Screw  Co.,  Grand  Rapids,  Mich. 
Chas.  A.  Strelinger  Co.,  Detroit,  Mich. 
Orr  &  Lockett  Hdw.  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 
C.  Christiansen,  Chicago,  111. 
E.  H.  Sheldon  &  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 
Columbia  School  Supply  Co.,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

For  Raffia,  Reed,  Yarn,  etc. — 

J.  L.  Hammett  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 

American  Rattan  &  Reed  Co.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

United  States  Rattan  Co.,  Hoboken,  N.  J. 

Atkinson,  Metzner  &  Grover,  Chicago,  111. 

Thomas  Charles  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

Garden  City  Educational  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

Northwestern  School  Supply  Co.,  Minneapolis,  Minn. 

Faribeau  Loom  Co., 

For  Statuary  and  Casts — 

P.  P.  Caproni  &  Bro.,  Boston,  Mass. 
Boston  Sculpture  Co.,  Melrose,  Mass. 
C.  Hennecke  Co.,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 

II.    SUBJECT  MATTER 

No  pupil  is  expected  to  make  all  the  articles  listed  for  any  one 
group  in  a  given  year.  The  list  includes  many  problems  which 
have  been  found  valuable,  and  as  many  are  used  as  the  time  and 
the  ability  of  the  pupils  will  permit.  This  also  allows  the  work  to 
be  somewhat  different  each  year,  so  that  unpromoted  pupils  do  not 
deal  the  second  time  with  exactly  the  same  thing.  It  also  supplies 
extra  work  for  those  doing  more  than  is  found  in  the  regular  sched- 
ule. 


MANUAL  TRAINING  145 


THIRD  DIVISION 

I.  Group  Work.  A.  .Dolls'  houses  and  barns,  built  from 
cracker  boxes.     B.  Furniture  for  these. 

This  work  is  found  very  valuable  in  its  social  elements.  Co- 
operation is  brought  about  by  having  the  boys  make  a  doll's  bed, 
and  letting  the  girls  furnish  the  bedding  for  it;  or  by  dividing  the 
class  into  groups,  and  illustrating  the  factory  system,  by  having 
each  group  responsible  for  a  particular  part  of  an  article.  The  pu- 
pil finds  that  he  must  do  his  work  with  especial  care.  Otherwise 
he  spoils  the  completed  work  of  others  as  well  as  his  own. 

II.  Individual  Work.  A.  Wood  (requiring  shaping  in  two 
dimensions,  only).  1.  Calendar  Backs.  2.  Match  Strikes.  3.  Paper 
knives.  4.  Puzzles.  B.  Bent  Iron  Work.  1.  Picture  easels.  2. 
Mats.  3.  Pen  racks.  4.  Ink  stands.  5.  Brackets.  C.  Raffia  (for 
girls).     1.  Napkin  ring.  2.  Small  basket.  3.  Shopping  bag. 

FOURTH  DIVISION 

Toys,  puzzles  and  games  form  the  characteristic  feature  of  this 
section.  Contests  in  kite  flying,  archery,  and  kindred  sports,  among 
our  own  pupils,  and  with  other  schools  are  encouraged;  and  these 
contests  are  found  very  helpful  in  arousing  enthusiasm  and  right 
school  and  class  spirit. 

I.  Toys.  A.  Bow  and  Arrow.  B.  Bow -gun.  C.  Flying  machine. 
I).  Kite.  E.  Wind  Mill.  F.  Water  motor.  G.  Telegraph.  H.  Won- 
dergraph. 

II.  Puzzles.     A.  Nail.     B.  Block.     C.  String. 

III.  Games.     A.  Solitaire  board.     B.  Checker  board. 

IV.  Utility  Models.  A.  Nail  and  screw  boxes.  B.  Flower 
pot  stand.     C.  Sled.     D.  Hygroscope.     E.  Skis. 

V.  Reed  Basketry  and  Weaving  (for  girls).  A.  Reed  Mats. 
B.  Trays.  C.  Baskets.  D.  Table  Mats.  E.  Holders.  F.  Book 
bag.     G.  Rugs,  (from  combinations  of  mats). 

FIFTH  DIVISION 

I.  Articles  of  use  to  the  pupil  in  home  or  school  are  empha- 
sized here.  A.  Toolrack.  B.  Sleeve  board.  C.  Necktie  rack.  D. 
Book  rack.  E.  Tabouret.  F.  Porch  Chair.  G.  Pen  tray.  H.  Ink. 
stand.  I.  Whisk  broom  holder.  J.  Coat  and  trousers  hangers. 
K.  Shoe  polishing  box.     L.  Bob  sled.     M.  Plate  rack. 


146  MANUAL  TRAINING 


II.  Extra  work  of  particular  interest  to  certain  pupils.  A. 
Telegraph  instruments.  B.  Zylophone  (made  by  using  maple 
blocks  of  varying  length).  C.  Turning  lathes  and  scroll  saws  (made 
from  old  sewing  machines  and  run  by  water  motors  made  in  pre- 
vious grades).  D.  Model  boat,  propelled  by  clock  works,  and  used 
as  basis  for  contests  of  distance,  speed,  maneuvering,  and  control. 

III.  Claymodeling  and  Pottery  (for  girls).  A.  Fruits.  B. 
Leaves.  C.  Animals.  D.  Conventional  forms.  E.  Low  bowls. 
F.  Flower  pots.     G.  Fern  dishes. 

SIXTH  DIVISION 

In  this  grade  we  do  more  technical  wofk,  involving  more  dif- 
ficult processes  of  construction,  and  larger  projects. 

I.  Bread  or  Cutting  Boards  involving  A.  The  four  typical  glue 
joints.  1.  Butt.  2.  Dowel.  3.  Tongue  and  groove.  4.  Spline  or 
feather.  B.  The  four  typical  modifications  of  the  corners.  1. 
Straight  oblique.  2.  Tangent  curve.  3.  Shoulder  curve.  4.  Con- 
cave. 

II.  Wooden  or  Metal  Boxes.  A.  Kind.  1.  Handkerchief. 
2.  Glove.  3.  Necktie.  4.  Jewelry.  B.  Decoration.  1.  Plain.  2. 
Inlaid.     3.  Carved.     4.  Metal. 

III.  Individual  projects  varying  in  scope  according  to  the 
time  and  the  pupils'  efficiency.  A.  Foot  stools  and  chairs.  1. 
With  woven  seats.  2.  With  upholstered  seats.  B.  Reading  lamps. 
C.  Desks.  D.  Mechanical  drawing  tables.  (Note.  Any  ordinary 
article  of  furniture  is  possible  for  the  boy  who  has  done  satisfactory 
work  thruout  the  grades). 

IV.  Pottery  (for  girls).  A.  Paper  weight.  B.  Tea  tile.  C. 
Tray.  D.  Soap  dishes.  E.  Vases.  F.  Jardiniere.  (Note.  Girls 
select  kind  and  color  of  glaze  wanted,  and  with  assistance  of  teacher, 
grind  and  apply  it.  Opportunity  for  observing  the  firing  is  also 
given). 


DOMESTIC  ARTS  147 


DOMESTIC  ARTS 

SEWING 

In  planning  the  course  in  sewing  care  has  been  exercised  that 
the  useful  garments  and  domestic  articles  chosen  for  the  appHcation 
of  the  essential  stitches  should  not  merely  be  of  interest  to  the 
pupils  in  these  grades,  but  also  that  the  work  should  not  require 
fine  coordination  of  either  eye  or  body  muscles. 

THIRD  DIVISION 

I.  Thimble  and  Needle  Drills. 

II.  Canvas  Work,  illustrative  of  1.  Basting.  2.  Running,  o. 
Stitching.  4.  Overhanding.  5.  Overcasting.  6.  Blanket  stitching. 
7.  Featherstitching. 

III.  Application  of  Stitches.  1.  On  Christmas  presents  such  as 
a.  Needlebooks.  b.  Sachet  bags.  c.  Penwipers,  d.  Bags.  e.  Towels. 
2.  On  finer  work  such  as  outfit  for  child's  bed,  consisting  of  a. 
Mattress,  b.  Sheets,  c.  Blankets,  d.  Comforter,  e.  Spread — with 
ornamental  design,  f.  Pillows,  g.  Pillow  cases,  h.  Fancy  pillow 
covers.  (Note.  There  is  also  given  in  this  connection  a  discussion 
of  bed-clothing,  sanitation  of  beds,  making  of  beds,  etc.) 

FOURTH   DIVISION 

I.  Review  of  Stitches  used  on  Bags. 

II.  New  stitches  such  as  those  needed  for  1.  French  and 
felled  seams.  2.  Putting  on  bands.  3.  Sewing  on  buttons.  4.  Making 
button  holes.  (Illustrated  by  the  making  of  a  sewing  apron, 
which  is  drafted.) 


148  DOMESTIC  ARTS 


III.  Application  of  all  stitches  to  the  making  of  1.  Christmas 
presents  such  as  a.  Dusters,  b.  Laundry  bags.  c.  Drawer  pads.  d. 
Waist  protectors,  e.  Handkerchiefs.  2.  Household  articles  such 
as  a.  Towels,  b.  Holders,  c.  Napkins,  d.  Plain  and  hemstitched 
doilies,  e.  Runners  (scalloped). 

IV.  Mending,  including  such  work  as  1 .  Darning.  2.  Patching. 
3.   Piecing. 

V.  Drafting  and  making  cooking  aprons  (to  be  used  next 
year  in  cooking  class). 

COOKING 

Cooking  is  this  year  (1909-1910)  given  for  the  first  time  to 
Elementary  School  pupils  —  to  girls  in  grades  seven,  eight,  and 
nine.  The  course  which  follows  is  tentative,  being  made  to  fit 
present  conditions,  of  which  the  one  requiring  most  consideration 
is  the  time  limit  for  the  work.  For  both  theory  and  practice, 
pupils  in  the  Fifth  Division  (seventh  grade)  are  allowed  two  forty- 
five-minute  periods  per  week,  and  the  Sixth  Division  pupils  three 
such  periods.  To  permit  of  some  theory,  and  yet  give  time  at  the 
close  of  a  period  for  the  necessary  putting  away  of  all  utensils 
"clean  and  in  order,"  the  actual  practice  in  cooking  must  each  day 
be  upon  what  can  readily  be  accomplished  in  the  short  time.  For 
this  reason  bread-making,  as  well  as  some  other  long  processes, 
must  be  omitted. 

FIFTH  DIVISION 

I.  Fruits:      A.  Applesauce.     B.  Baked  apple.     C.    Stewed  apple 

(whole).     D.    Canning.     E.     Cranberry  jelly.     F.    Fruit  cup. 

II.  Starchy  Foods :  A.  Tapioca.  B.  Cereals.  1.  Cornmeal — 
mush,  plain  and  fried.  2.  Cream  of  wheat — plain  and  with 
dates.  3.  White  sauce  (to  show  effect  of  heat  on  starch). 
4.  Rice — plain,  M'ith  cheese,  in  pudding.  5.  Macaroni. 
C.  Vegetables.  1.  Potatoes:  (a)  Boiled,  with  and  without 
jackets,  b.  Baked,  c.  Creamed,  d.  Au  gratin.  e.  Potato 
balls,  f.  Sauted,  g.  French  fried,  h.  Glazed  sweet  potatoes. 
2.  Cabbage:  a.  Boiled,  b.  Scalloped.  3.  Corn:  a.  Scal- 
loped,    b.    Fritters  or  "oysters." 


DOMESTIC  ARTS  149 


III.  Eggs  (taught  in  season):  A.  Boiled.  B.  Poached — on 
toast.  C.  Shirred.  1).  Fried.  E.  Scrambled.  F.  Omelet. 
G.  Deviled.  H.  Creamed,  on  toast.  I.  Marguerites.  J. 
Snow  pudding.     K.     Prune  whip.     L.      Lemon  souffle. 

IV.  Milk:  A.  Junket  pudding.  B.  Cornstarch  pudding. 
C.  Custard:  1.  Boiled.  2.  Baked.  3.  Caramel.  D.  Cream 
toast.  E.  Cream  soups:  1.  Pea.  2.  Corn.  3.  Tomato. 
4.  Oyster.      F.     Croutons  (to  accompany  soups). 

y.  Beverages:  A.  Cocoa  and  chocolate.  B.  Lemonades  and 
fruit  punch.     C.  Tea  and  coffee.     D.  Serving  afternoon  tea,  etc. 

VI.  Salads:     A.     With   boiled  salad  dressing:     1.     Banana  salad. 

2.  Celery  and  cabbage  salad.     3.     Potato  salad.      B.     With 
Mayonnaise   dressing:      1.     Waldorf  salad.     2.     Fruit  salad. 

3.  Porcupine  salad.     C.    Wafers  (to  serve  with  salad) — plain, 
and  cheese  wafers. 

VII.  Sandwiches:  A.  Cheese.  B.  Egg.  C.  Meat.  D.  Pimento. 
E.    Raisin. 

VIII.  Gelatine:  A.  Lemon  jelly.  B.  Sparkling  lemon  jelly. 
C.    Fruit   gelatine. 

IX.  Ices  and  Ice  Cream. 

SIXTH  DIVISION 

I.  Preservation  of  foods: 

II.  Food  classification:  A.  Carbohydrates:  1.  Sugar:  Stages 
in  boiling  sugar:  a.  Thread  stage — marshmallows.  b.  Soft 
ball  stage — fondant,  pinoche,  fudge,  c.  Hard  ball  stage — 
taffy,  d.  Caramel  stage — peanut  brittle,  e.  Stuffed  dates 
(accessory).  2.  Starch:  a.  Coarse  oatmeal,  b.  Fried  oat- 
meal, c.  Rice.  d.  Moulded  rice.  e.  Tapioca.,  f.  Tapioca 
custard.  3.  Cellulose:  a.  Celery,  creamed,  b.  Carrots, 
sauted.  B.  Fats:  1.  Making  of  butter.  2.  Bacon — 
oysters  in  bacon.  3.  Frying  in  lard  and  in  oil:  a.  Rice  cro- 
quettes, b.  Salmon  croquettes,  c.  Potato  balls.  4.  Saute- 
ing:  a.  Apples.  b.  Oysters.  C.  Proteids:  1.  Eggs: 
a.  Boiled  three  ways.  b.  Omelet,  c.  Custard.  2.  Meats: 
a.  Chops.  b.  Roast.  c.  Warmed  over  meat — minced,  on 
toast;  hash,  cottage  pie.  d.  Stew — rice  border.  3.  Cheese: 
a.     Fondue,     b.     Timbales. 


150  DOMESTIC  ARTS 


III.  Breads  and  Cakes:  A.  Batters:  1.  Thin  batters;  a.  With 
air  as  a  leavening  agent — cream  puffs,  b.  With  baking  pow- 
der as  a  leavening  agent — griddle  cakes.  2.  Thick  batters: 
a.  With  baking  powder  as  a  leavener — Muffins,  Health 
food  muffins,  Sally  Lunn,  Scones,  Cakes  and  their  frostings. 
Gingerbread,  Cottage  pudding.     Steamed    Graham    pudding. 

B.  Doughs:  1.  Cookies.  2.  Doughnuts.  3.  Biscuit. 
4.  Short-cake.  5.  Pastry.  C.  Sponges:  1.  Bread.  2.  Rolls. 
3.  Ways  of  using  stale  bread :  a.  French  toast,  b.  Bread 
pudding.  c.  Use  of  crumbs:  (1)  Scalloped  dishes. 
(2)  Bread  omelet.  (3)  Bread  griddle  cakes.  (4)  Crumbing — 
veal  croquettes. 

IV.  Miscellaneous:      A.     Fireless    cooker.     B.     Invalid    cookery: 

1.  Gruel.     2.    Toast  v\-ater.     3.    Egg-nog.     4.    Invalid's  tra3\ 

C.  1.      Serving  —  meal    prepared     and     served    by     class. 

2.  Suitable  combinations  of  food.  D.  Canning.  E.  Ices 
and  Ice  creams. 


i 


PENMANSHIP  151 


PENMANSHIP 

The  really  important  elements  of  success  in  writing  are  the 
position  of  the  body,  of  the  arms  and  hands,  of  the  paper,  the 
manner  of  holding  the  pen.  and  the  movement.  This  applies 
equally  to  the  vertical  and  the  slant  styles  of  writing. 

The  important  thing  in  writing  is  speed  and  movement,  while 
the  direction  of  the  lines  and  the  special  style  of  letters  are  of  second- 
arv  importance.  It  would,  indeed,  be  difficult  to  decide  upon  a 
universal  style  of  writing  since  it  is  put  to  so  many  different  uses. 

If  correct  habits  of  writing  have  been  established  in  the  school 
room  the  necessary  transition  period  from  school  to  office  hand, 
from  round  to  slant,  or  vice  versa,  will  be  of  short  duration.  How- 
ever, if  the  boy  has  been  taught  merely  to  make  letters,  regardless 
of  speed  and  movement,  he  will  meet  with  utter  failure  in  any 
style  of  writing  when  he  attempts  to  adapt  his  hand  to  the  neces- 
sities of  business  life. 

To  estabhsh  and  work  out  broad  and  well  defined  principles 
which  may  have  a  lasting  influence  would  seem  all  important  in 
teaching  the  art  of  writing.  Therefore  we  make  ah  effort  to  im- 
press the  following  principles  underlying  correct  writing  thruout 
the  grades. 
I.      Position  of  the  body,  arms,  hands,  pen  and  paper. 

a.  Sit  directly  in  front  of  the  desk,  feet  S(juarcly  on  the  floor. 

b.  Allow  two-thirds  of  the  forearm  to  rest  upon  the  desk. 

c.  Let  the  hand  rest  upon  the  first  joint  of  the  little  finger, 
in  a  position  to  move  back  and  forth  easily  with  the  forearm. 

d.  The  pen  should  be  held  lightly  but  firmly  with  the  edge  of 
the  thumb  upon  the  holder,  the  first  finger  on  the  holder,  allowing 
the  holder  to  rest  upon  the  root  of  the  nail  of  the  middle  finger. 

e.  The  position  of  the  paper  should  correspond  with  the  direc- 
tion of  the  lines.     If  vertical  writing  be  employed,  place  the  paper 


152  PENMANSHIP 


in  front  of  the  writer  so  that  the  left  edge  will  be  opposite  the  cen- 
ter line  of  the  body.  In  the  slanting  style  the  paper  is  turned  so 
that  it  will  correspond  with  the  slant  of  the  letters. 

II.  Form. 

1.  Vertical  Writing.  The  circle  is  the  fundamental  form 
in  the  vertical  hand,  and  the  letters  are  therefore  circular  in  form. 

Retrace  to  make  angles  and  turns  in  the  vertical  style.  In 
most  styles  of  writing  the  lines  simply  touch  in  forming  an  angle, 
and  the  result  is  short  angles  and  turns,  and  close  spacing  between 
lines.  The  vertical  style  because  of  the  retracing  requires  broad 
turns.  Allow  wide  spacing  between  letters,  words  and  sentences, 
and  above  and  below  each  sentence  or  line  of  writing.  The  capi- 
tal, loop  and  stem,  letters  are  two  spaces  high  in  the  vertical  hand 
—  all  other  letters  are  but  one  space  high  —  the  proportion  there- 
fore is  as  two  to  one.  It  must  be  continually  borne  in  mind  that 
the  vertical  style  is  not  the  slant  straightened  up  —  but  is  a  char- 
acteristic hand  based  upon  certain  well  defined  principles.  It  lends 
itself  especially  well  to  all  blackboard  work  in  lower  grades,  and 
has  a  practical  value  in  primary  work. 

2.  Slant  Writing.  The  oval  is  the  fundamental  form  in 
the  slant  hand.  The  turns  are  broader  in  the  modem  slant  hand 
than  in  the  early  Spencerian  style.  The  former  proportion  of 
three  to  one  has  been  reduced  to  two  to  one  —  the  same  as  in  the 
vertical  hand.  Also  wide  spacing  is  allowed  between  letters,  words 
and  sentences  and  above  and  below  sentences  and  lines.  A  modi- 
fied slant  hand,  as  given,  is  taught  in  all  grades. 

III.  Movement  and  Speed. 

Movement  and  speed  are  as  fundamental  in  writing  as  are 
rhythm  and  time  in  music. 

Movement  and  speed  depend  largely  upon  a  well  regulated 
course  in  movement  exercises,  which  should  begin  with  the  first 
lessons  in  writing,  and  end  when  good  movement  has  become  a 
habit.  The  child  can  not  apply  the  principles  of  good  movement 
until  he  has  gained  sufficient  control  of  hand,  arm,  and  rhythmic 
element.  This  mastery  of  principles  depends  upon  daily  practice 
of  exercises  as  much  in  writing  as  in  learning  to  play  the  violin. 
School  room  and  business  college  results  differ  largely  because  of 
the  daily  continuous  movement  drills  in  the  latter,  as  opposed  to 


PENMANSHIP  153 


the  intermittent  lessons  which  are  possible  in  the  school  room. 
For  this  reason  it  takes  a  longer  time  to  see  the  effect  of  movement 
drill  in  the  school  room,  and  the  child  is  continually  handicapped 
because  of  inability  to  apply  that  which  he  has  not  vet  fuUv  mas- 
tered. 

The  art  of  learning  to  write  is  a  growth  as  are  all  other  arts, 
and  the  most  effective  movement  work  is  possible  in  the  higher 
grades  at  a  time  when  the  writing  lesson  usually  becomes  very  ir- 
regular. This  often  retards  an  ordinary  change  from  school  to 
business  handwriting,  regardless  of  style  of  letters  employed. 

IV.  Rhythmic  Movement. 

Letters  are  a  result  of  movement  and  depend  for  form,  speed 
and  beauty  upon  a  rhythmic,  regular  and  rapid  movement.  Rhythm 
is  one  of  the  fundamental  elements  belonging  to  good  movement, 
and  the  fine  rhythmic  sense  of  the  musician  must  be  evident  in  the 
writing  period  else  the  movement  will  not  be  practical. 

A  rhythmic  method  of  counting  for  exercises,  words  and  let- 
ters is  necessary  in  establishing  a  regular,  rapid  movement.  Notice 
the  accent  in  counting  with  as  much  care  as  in  a  music  lesson.  As 
the  strong,  weak  beats  alternate  in  music  so  the  counts  should  al- 
ternate in  writing.  The  down  stroke  receives  the  strong  beat  or 
count,  the  up  stroke  a  light  beat  or  count.  In  counting  for  the 
capital  O  count  one-two,  one-two,  one-two,  quitting  the  two  quick- 
ly and  lightly.  If  the  word  "and"  be  used  in  counting  it  should 
always  be  spoken  lightly  and  rapidly  since  it  is  used  only  for  con- 
necting lines.  The  voice  in  counting  should  be  a  light  staccato  — 
and  thru  the  medium  of  the  voice  should  be  indicated  a  continu- 
ous, elastic  movement. 

We  place  much  emphasis  upon  the  use  of  the  forearm,  and 
try  to  secure  the  free  use  of  both  hand  and  arm. 

V.  Method  of  Practice, 

With  beginners  the  blackboard  is  used  exclusively  for  a  con- 
siderable time.  Here  we  allow  the  child  at  first  entire  freedom  to 
make  the  form  as  best  he  can,  but  always  with  the  full  arm  move- 
ment. Gradually  he  is  taught  to  execute  definite  forms  of  uniform 
size.  Clear  conception  of  symmetry  in  simple  forms  and  a  good 
degree  of  skill  in  making  them  should  be  attained  before  the  child 
is  permitted  to  use  pencil  and  paper  at  all. 


154  PENMANSHIP 


Upon  changing  from  blackboard  to  paper  we  use  a  broad- 
pointed  pencil,  or  checking  crayon,  and  unruled  manila  paper  cut 
to  proper  size. 

With  these  the  blackboard  exercises  are  repeated  with  only 
enough  modification  to  maintain  the  interest  and  to  correspond 
with  the  child's  better  sense  of  form,  proportion  and  symmetry. 
We  allow  him  to  make  very  large  forms  at  first,  and  do  not  hurry 
into  the  early  writing  of  words  and  sentences.  If  the  blackboard 
practice  has  been  of  the  right  kind  the  child  will  quite  naturally 
use  his  whole  arm  when  he  begins  to  work  with  paper.  This  is 
continued  indefinitely;  though  gradually  control  of  the  finer  mus- 
cles which  move  the  fingers  will  be  acquired  and  some  degree  of 
finger  movement  become  both  natural  and  promotive  of  facility 
and  skill. 

VI.  Order  of  Lesson. 

Good  penmanship  is  the  result  of  good  order,  a  systematic  way 
of  doing  things,  quite  as  much  as  the  study  of  form  and  movement. 

1.  Signal  for  attention. 

2.  Distribute  materials  according  to  definite  plan. 

3.  Present  copy  upon  blackboard.  Insist  upon  closest  at- 
tention during  presentation  of  copy.  Erase  blackboard  carefully 
for  presentation  of  copies.  Arrange  copy  upon  blackboard  as  you 
expect  class  to  arrange  work.  One  letter  or  copy  in  lower  grades 
is  quite  sufficient  for  one  lesson.  Cultivate  the  spirit  which  aims 
to  make  perfect  letters,  or  do  perfect  work. 

4.  Require  concert  work  in  opening  inkwells,  books  and  tak- 
ing pens  —  let  this  be  done  quietly. 

5.  After  the  class  has  tried  copy,  point  out  errors  upon  the 
blackboard,  comparing  the  correct  with  the  incorrect  form. 

VII.  Writing  Books. 

Steadman's  Graded  Lessons  in  Writing.  Use  the  manuscript 
Outline  in  first  grade,  Book  I  in  second  grade,  Book  II  in  third 
grade,  and  a  corresponding  succession  of  numbers  for  the  remain- 
ing grades. 

VIII.  Supplementary  Work. 

1.  A  Course  IN  Letter  Writing.  A  course  in  letter  writing 
is  given  for  the  sake  of  emphasizing  necessary  skill  in  writing  and 
to  impress  the  need  of  a  practical  handwriting. 


PENMANSHIP  ISfi 


In  this  course  the  regular  correspondence  paper  is  used,  and 
both  handwriting  and  the  use  of  good  EngHsh  receive  a  test  not 
possible  in  the  practice  of  formal  writing  book  copies. 

2.  Figures.  The  frequent  use  of  figures  in  business  and  the 
importance  of  exhibiting  clearly  correct  results  in  all  business  trans- 
actions makes  necessary  a  special  study  as  to  structure,  and  prac- 
tice in  making  rapid  figures.  We  present  figures  in  the  same  way 
as  letters  —  calling  attention  to  characteristic  features  and  ar- 
rangement. 

For  convenience  sake  in  adding  and  subtracting,  figures  should 
be  written  directly  under  each  other.  In  order  to  regulate  and 
increase  the  speed,  count  as  in  making  the  letters.  Allowing  pu- 
pils to  see  how  many  figures  they  can  make  in  a  minute  is  a  simple 
device  for  promoting  speed.  An  occasional  practice  upon  figures 
is  of  great  benefit  —  odd  moments  during  the  day  can  be  profitably 
used  in  practicing  upon  a  figure  —  or  group  of  figures. 

o.  Daily  Written  Work.  There  should  be  a  minimum  of 
written  work  —  especially  of  copied  work  —  and  a  maximum  of 
well  directed  effort  in  all  written  exercises.  The  writing  lesson  and 
daily  work  should  be  so  related  that  the  child  gains  power  every 
time  he  writes,  and  with  a  reasonable  amount  of  written  work 
much  can  be  accomplished. 

We  place  a  model  lesson  upon  the  blackboard  for  the  sake  of 
illustrating  the  general  arrangement  of  the  work.  Twice  during 
each  term  a  selection  consisting  of  not  more  than  six  lines  is  writ- 
ten by  the  pupils  upon  paper,  especially  designed  for  this  purpose. 
This  work  is  corrected  —  only  general  points  being  pointed  out  at 
first.  Shape,  size,  direction  of  lines,  spacing,  quality  of  lines  are 
considered  —  and  with  the  disayipearance  of  some  of  the  more  con- 
spicuous faults  the  writing  begins  to  improve.  This  work  is  made 
the  basis  for  comparison  in  all  other  written  work. 

Punctuality  and  system  in  conducting  the  writing  lesson,  and 
a  sympathetic  interest  in  every  effort  made  by  the  pupil  will  go 
far  towards  awakening  ambition  and  earnest  effort  on  the  part  of 
the  class  in  writing. 


156  SPELLING 


SPELLING 

I.     INTRODUCTION 

To  counteract  a  general  tendency  toward  inaccuracy  in  spell- 
ing we  resort  to  two  things,  1.  A  certain  amount  of  drill  in  more 
or  less  formal  spelling  lessons,  and  2.  The  cultivation  of  a  sensitive 
spelling  conscience.  The  close  relation  which  should  exist  between 
the  formal  spelling  lesson  and  the  child's  written  vocabulary  lays 
the  basis  for  the  ideal  method  of  securing  words  for  the  spelling 
lesson  which  is  to  select  them  from  the  actual  mistakes  in  the 
written  work  of  the  class.  This  gives  words  of  which  the  children 
know  the  meaning  and  which,  being  in  their  own  written  vocabu- 
lary, need  to  be  spelled  and,  being  misspelled,  to  be  drilled  upon. 

However,  in  the  higher  grades  there  seems  to  be  a  limit  to  the 
value  in  calling  children's  attention  to  misspelled  words  in  regu- 
larly recurring  spelling  lessons.  At  this  period  the  necessity  of 
showing  them  how  to  spell  the  word  is  largely  gone  and  in  place 
of  it  more  attention  must  be  paid  to  having  them  write  by  habit 
words  which  they  can  usually  spell  when  their  attention  is  called 
to  them  but  which  they  leave  in  a  slovenly  condition  when  they 
are  intent  upon  expressing  their  ideas.  If  the  child  by  this  time 
has  not  gained  a  sensitive  spelling  conscience  he  is  hardly  likely  to 
get  it  in  a  formal  spelling  lesson. 

This  sensitiveness  should  be  sought  in  the  early  grades  soon 
after  the  child  begins  to  write.  If  five  or  six  years  later  he  still 
has  poorly  defined  ideas  of  word-forms  it  means  that  too  many 
words  have  been  introduced  in  too  short  a  time  and  consequently 
the  child  has  been  able  to  build  up  for  himself  no  standard  of  cor- 
rectness, no  list  of  words  of  which  he  is  absolutely  sure  and  to 
which  he  can  make  additions  of  other  correct  forms  as  he  learns 
them.     His  spelling  power  is  disorganized  and  lacking  in  tone. 

The  most  natural  place  and  likewise  the  most  satisfactory  in 
which  this  sensitiveness  may  be  acquired  is  in  the  regular  everyday 
written  work  in  lessons  in  geography,  history,  and  arithmetic;  and 
the  most  satisfactory  method  we  have  found  is  first  and  always  to 


SPELLING  157 


impress  upon  the  children  the  necessity  of  always  spelling  well  and 
second  to  have  them  read  over  again  anything  they  have  written, 
for  the  sake  of  the  form.  They  are  expected,  whenever  in  doubt 
about  a  word,  to  consult  the  teacher  or  the  dictionary.  When 
there  are  inexcusable  mistakes  in  the  work  handed  in,  the  mis- 
spelled words  must  be  looked  up  and  written  out. 

II.     SUBJECT  MATTER 
FIRST  DIVISION 

First  Grade.  What  little  is  learned  of  spelling  in  the  first 
grade  is  gained  in  connection  with  the  reading  and  writing  lessons, 
thru  copying  and  from  memory.  The  child  learns  to  sign  his 
name,  to  write  labels,  action  commands,  and  the  briefest  of  letters. 

Second  Grade.  In  the  second  grade,  in  connection  with  the 
study  of  phonics,  attention  is  directed  to  the  individual  letters 
forming  a  word.  The  words,  however,  are  learned  chiefly  thru  the 
writing  of  daily  weather  reports,  and  frequent  letters,  which  are 
corrected  by  the  teacher.  During  the  writing  of  these  exercises 
the  child  leaves  blank  spaces  for  words  which  he  can  not  spell. 
These  spaces  are  filled  by  the  teacher  and  when  the  pupil  again  re- 
ceives his  book,  he  copies  the  new  words  into  a  properly  arranged 
blank -book  called  his  "dictionary."  In  doing  later  work  he  refers 
to  this  "dictionary"  when  doubt  arises  in  his  mind  concerning  the 
spelling  of  a  word  contained  in  it. 

SECOND  DIVISION 

In  this  division  the  main  work  in  spelling  grows  out  of  the 
children's  needs,  especially  in  written  language,  so  that  it  can  not 
be  definitely  stated.  To  overbalance  this  indcfinitcness,  and  be- 
cause the  text  used  is  particularly  helpful  on  many  of  the  words 
most  needed,  about  twelve  minutes  per  day  are  given  to  text  book 
work  as  follows: 

B  Third  Class.  Rational  Speller,  No.  I,  Rice,  First  Year, 
completed. 

A  Third  Class.  Rational  Speller.  No.  I,  Rice,  Second  Year, 
completed. 

B  Fourth  Class.  Rational  Speller,  Xo.  I.  Rice,  Third  Year, 
completed. 


158  SPELLING 


THIRD  DIVISION 

A  Fourth  and  B  Fifth  Class.  No  book  is  used.  A  period 
in  school  hours  is  devoted  to  the  learning  of  words  from  a  written 
list  on  the  board.  In  a  case  where  the  pupil  is  very  slow  to  learn, 
a  list  is  given  a  day  ahead  so  that  some  extra  time  may  be  put 
upon  the  mastery  of  the  lesson. 

Each  teacher  keeps  a  list  of  misspelled  words  from  the  various 
classes  and  words  are  selected  from  these. 

Lessons  are  given  on  groups  of  words  relating  to  one  subject  — 
flowers,  fruits,  vegetables,  parts  of  a  house,  etc. 

Words  having  the  same  spelling  and  different  use  —  such  as 
minute  and  minute,  are  given  as  are  also  synonym  and  homonyms. 

Application  is  made  in  dictation  of  words,  sentences,  and  para- 
graphs. 

FOURTH  DIVISION 

A  Fifth  Class  and  Sixth  Grade.  There  are  three  periods  a 
week,  of  twenty-five  minutes  each,  for  study  and  recitation  of 
words  from  a  speller,  or  from  lists  made  by  the  teacher  from  the 
w^ords  especially  needed  by  the  class.  These  are  written  in  ink  in 
spelling-blank  books,  both  in  lists  of  words  and  in  sentences.  At- 
tention is  given  to  some  simple  rules  of  spelling,  to  diacritical 
marks,  and  to  syllabication.     An  occasional  oral  lesson  is  given. 

In  all  written  work  handed  in,  misspelled  words  lower  the  mark 
of  the  paper.  In  this  way  we  try  to  cultivate  the  habit  of  constant 
w^atchfulness  in  the  spelling  of  troublesome  words  till  the  habit  of 
spelling  them  correctly  is  fixed. 

FIFTH  AND  SIXTH  DIVISIONS 
Seventh  and  Eighth  Grades.  No  formal  spelling  class  is 
conducted.  Our  aim  is  to  lay  stress  upon  correct  spelling  in  all 
written  work.  In  language  papers  pupils  are  encouraged  to  ascer- 
tain the  correct  spelling  before  writing  a  word.  Here  the  teacher 
acts  as  a  dictionary,  but  during  periods  of  independent  work  the 
pupil  is  encouraged  to  use  the  dictionary  for  himself,  and  is  aided 
in  becoming  proficient  in  this  work. 

Many  times  misspelled  words  are  indicated  in  written  work 
and  pupils  are  required  to  rewrite  their  papers  until  the  words  are 
all  right.  Occasionally  as  the  teacher  writes  words  in  any  class  she 
calls  upon  the  pupils  to  spell  them.  Attention  is  frequently  called 
to  the  special  points  of  difficulty  in  the  spelling  of  specific  words 
and  to  similarities  (or  rules)  in  spelling. 


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30480.3 


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